Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, including the conscious and unconscious phenomena, as well as feelings and thoughts. It is an enormous and diverse range of academic disciplines of interest that, when taken together, seeks an understanding of the attributes of the emerging brain, and all the variations of epiphenomena they embody. As a social science, it aims to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and examining specific cases.
In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists seek to understand the role of mental functioning in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive function and behavior.
Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion (influence), intelligence, phenomenology, motivation (konasi), brain function, and personality. This extends to interactions between people, such as interpersonal relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists with diverse orientations also consider the subconscious mind. Psychologists use empirical methods to infer causal relationships and correlations between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to using empirical and deductive methods, some - especially clinical and counseling psychologists - sometimes rely on symbolic interpretations and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub science" in drugs that tend to attract psychological research through neurology and psychiatry, while social science most often draws directly from sub-disciplines in psychology.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also geared towards understanding and solving problems in some areas of human activity. With many psychological accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society. The majority of psychologists are involved in several types of therapeutic roles, practicing in clinics, counseling, or school settings. Many undertake scientific research on various topics related to mental and behavioral processes, and usually work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic environments (eg, medical schools, hospitals). Some work in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigations and other legal aspects.
Video Psychology
Etymology and definition
The word psychology comes from the Greek root meaning learning the soul, or soul (???? psych? , "breath, spirit, soul" and - ????? -logia , "study about" or "research"). The Latin psychologia was first used by Croatian and Latino humanist Marko Maruli? in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae at the end of the 15th century or early 16th century. The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats the Body, and Psychology, which treat the Soul. "
In 1890, William James defined psychology as "the science of mental life, both of their phenomena and conditions". This definition enjoys widespread currency over several decades. However, this meaning is contrasted, primarily by radical behaviorists such as John B. Watson, who in 1913 defined his manifesto psychological discipline as the acquisition of useful information for controlling behavior. Also since James has defined it, it has a stronger connotation of scientific experimental techniques. People's psychology refers to the understanding of ordinary people, who are different from psychological professionals.
Maps Psychology
History
Ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia were all involved in the study of philosophy of psychology. Historians note that the Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his treatise De Anima ), discussed the workings of the mind. At the beginning of the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders have physical causes rather than supernatural.
In China, the psychological understanding grew out of the philosophical work of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the Buddhist doctrine. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation, as well as techniques for focused thinking and action. It frames the universe as a division, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind to enhance virtue and strength. An ancient text known as the Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine identifies the brain as the nexus of wisdom and sensation, including personality theory based on yin-yang balance, and analyzes mental disorders in physiological and social disequilibria. The Chinese scholarship focuses on the advanced brain of the Qing Dynasty with the Western-educated Fang Yizhi (1611-1671), Liu Zhi (1660-1730), and Wang Qingren (1768-1831). Wang Qingren emphasizes the importance of the brain as the central nervous system, connecting mental disorders with brain diseases, investigating the causes of dreams and insomnia, and developing the hemisphere's lateralization theory in brain function.
Differences in kind of consciousness arise in ancient Indian thought, influenced by Hinduism. The main idea of ​​the Upanishads is the difference between the temporal temporal person and their immutable immortal soul. Different Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of self, but all emphasize the importance of attaining higher consciousness. Yoga is a variety of techniques used in pursuit of this goal. Most of the Sanskrit corpus was suppressed under the British East India Company which was followed by Raj Britain in the 1800s. However, Indian doctrine influenced Western thought through Theosophical Society, a New Age group that became popular among European-American intellectuals.
Psychology is a popular topic in Enlightenment Europe. In Germany, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) applies the principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that mental activity occurs on an indivisible continuum - notably, that among the infinite perceptions and human desires, the distinction between consciousness and Consciousness is unconscious only degree problems. Christian Wolff identified psychology as his own science, wrote Psychologia empirica in 1732 and Psychologia rationalist in 1734. This idea advanced further under Immanuel Kant, who founded the anthropological notion, with psychology as an important subdivision. However, Kant explicitly and famously rejects the idea of ​​experimental psychology, writes that "the empirical doctrine of the soul can never approach chemistry even as the art of systematic analysis or experimental doctrine, because in it the various observations of the mind can only be separated by division only in thought, and then can not be held separately and combined at will (but still less than other thinking subjects suffer themselves to experiment according to our purposes), and even observations by themselves have changed and replaced the observed state of the object. " After consultation with the philosophers Hegel and Herbart, in 1825 the Prussian state established psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential educational system. However, this discipline has not yet embraced the experiment. In the UK, early psychology involves phrenology and responses to social problems including alcoholism, violence, and dense mental hospitals in the country.
Beginning of experimental psychology
Gustav Fechner began conducting psychophysical research in Leipzig in the 1830s, articulating the principle that human perception of stimuli varies logarithmically by intensity. Fechner's 1860 Elements of Psychophysics challenged Kant's stricture against quantitative studies of the mind. In Heidelberg, Hermann von Helmholtz conducted a parallel study of sensory perceptions, and trained physiologist Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt, in turn, came to the University of Leipzig, establishing a psychology lab that brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focuses on breaking up mental processes into the most basic components, partly motivated by analogy with recent advances in chemistry, and successful inquiry of material elements and structures. Paul Flechsig and Emil Kraepelin soon created another influential psychology laboratory in Leipzig, this one more focused on experimental psychiatry.
Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed Wundt in setting up the laboratory. G. Stanley Hall who studied with Wundt, formed a psychology lab at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland, which became influential internationally. Hall, in turn, trains Yujiro Motora, who brings experimental psychology, emphasizes psychophysics, to the Imperial University of Tokyo. Wundt's assistant, Hugo MÃÆ'¼nsterberg teaches psychology at Harvard to students like Narendra Nath Sen Gupta - who, in 1905, founded the psychology and laboratory department at Calcutta University. Wundt's students, Walter Dill Scott, Lightner Witmer, and James McKeen Cattell worked on developing tests for mental ability. Catell, who also studied with eugenicist Francis Galton, later founded Psychological Corporation. Wittmer focuses on children's mental tests; Scott, on employee selection.
Another student from Wundt, Edward Titchener, created a psychology program at Cornell University and advanced the doctrine of "structuralist" psychology. Structuralism seeks to analyze and classify various aspects of the mind, especially through introspection methods. William James, John Dewey and Harvey Carr advanced a broader doctrine called functionalism, more in line with human environmental actions. In 1890 James wrote an influential book, The Principles of Psychology, which developed in the field of structuralism, clearly illustrates the "flow of consciousness" of man, and attracts many American students in emerging discipline. Dewey integrates psychology with social problems, especially by promoting progressive education causes to assimilate immigrants and inculcate moral values ​​in children.
A different experimentalist strain, with more connections to physiology, emerged in South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. PiÃÆ' Â ± ero at the University of Buenos Aires. Russia also places greater emphasis on the biological basis for psychology, beginning with the essay of Ivan Sechenov in 1873, "Who Develops Psychology and How?" Sechenov advances brain reflex ideas and aggressively promotes a deterministic point of view on human behavior.
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the Gestalt psychology school (not to be confused with Gestalt Fritz Perls therapy). This approach is based on the idea that individuals experience things as a unified whole. Instead of breaking minds and behavior into smaller elements, as in structuralism, the Gestaltists argue that the whole experience is important, and different from the sum of its parts. Other contributions of the 19th century to the field include German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental memory study, who developed a quantitative model of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin, and Soviet Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in the dog a learning process that was later called "classical conditioning" and applied to humans.
Consolidation and funding
One of the earliest psychological communities is the La Socià © à © tÃÆ' © de Psychologie Physiologique in France, which lasted from 1885-1893. The first meeting of the International Psychological Congress took place in Paris, in August 1889, in the middle of a World Fair celebrating the centenary of the French Revolution. William James was one of three Americans among four hundred attendees. The American Psychological Association was founded soon after, in 1892. The International Congress continues to be held, at various locations in Europe, with broader international participation. The Sixth Congress, Geneva 1909, included presentations in Russian, Chinese, and Japanese, as well as Esperanto. After being absent for World War I, the Seventh Congress met at Oxford, with much greater participation than the Anglo-American wins. In 1929, the Congress took place at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, attended by hundreds of members of the American Psychological Association of the Imperial University of Tokyo leading the way in bringing new psychology to the East, and from Japan these ideas spread to China.
American psychology gained status during World War I, where a committee headed by Robert Yerkes conducted a mental test ("Army Alpha" and "Army Beta") to nearly 1.8 million GIs. The next funding for behavioral research comes mostly from the Rockefeller family, through the Board of Social Science Research. Charity Rockefeller funded the National Committee for Mental Health, which promotes the concept of mental illness and lobbies for psychological monitoring of child development. Through the Social Hygiene Bureau and subsequent funding from Alfred Kinsey, the Rockefeller foundation established sex research as a worthy discipline in the US. Under the influence of the Carnegie-funded Eugenics Notes Office, the Draper Funded Pioneer Fund, and other agencies, the eugenics of the movement also had a significant impact on American psychology; in the 1910s and 1920s, eugenics became a standard topic in the class of psychology.
During World War II and the Cold War, US military and intelligence agencies established themselves as prominent psychological funders - through the armed forces and in the intelligence office of the new Service Strategic Services. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin Cartwright reported that university researchers started large-scale propaganda research in 1939-1941, and "the last few months of the war saw a social psychologist be primarily responsible for determining week-by-week propaganda policies for the United States Government. "Cartwright also writes that psychologists have an important role in managing the domestic economy. The Army launched a new General Classification Test and was involved in the massive study of troop morale. In the 1950s, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation collaborated with the Central Intelligence Agency to fund research on psychological warfare. In 1965, the public controversy called attention to the Army Camelot Project - the "Manhattan Project" of social science - an effort involving psychologists and anthropologists to analyze foreign countries for strategic purposes.
In Germany after World War I, psychology held institutional power through the military, and then expanded along with the rest of the military under the Third Reich. Under the direction of the cousin of Hermann GÃÆ'¶ring, Matthias GÃÆ'¶ring, the Berlin Institute of Psychoanalytic was renamed the GÃÆ'¶ring Institute. Freud psychoanalysts were expelled and persecuted under the Nazi anti-Jewish policy, and all psychologists had to distance themselves from Freud and Adler. The GÃÆ'¶ring Institute was well financed during the war with a mandate to create "New German Psychotherapy". This psychotherapy aims to align the Germans who fit the Reich's overall objectives; as described by a physician: "Although the importance of analysis, spiritual guidance and active co-operation of patients is the best way to address individual mental problems and subordinate them to the requirements of the Volk and Gemeinschaft >. "Psychologists must provide SeelenfÃÆ'¼hrung, leadership of the mind, to integrate people into the new vision of the German community. Harald Schultz-Hencke united psychology with biological theory and the origin of the Nazi race, criticizing psychoanalysis as a study of the weak and the disabled. Johannes Heinrich Schultz, a recognized German psychologist for developing autogenic training techniques, clearly advocated sterilization and euthanasia in men who were considered undesirable genetically, and designed a technique to facilitate this process. After the war, several new institutions were created and some psychologists were discredited because of the Nazi affiliation. Alexander Mitscherlich founded a leading applied psychoanalysis journal called Psyche and with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation founded the first clinical psychosomatic medicine division at the University of Heidelberg. In 1970, psychology was integrated into the study of medical students.
After the Russian Revolution, psychology was greatly promoted by the Bolsheviks as a way of revolutionizing the "New Man" of socialism. Thus, the university psychology department trains a large number of students, for positions provided in schools, workplaces, cultural institutions, and in the military. A primary focus is pedology, the study of child development, on which Lev Vygotsky became a prominent writer. The Bolsheviks also promote free love and support the doctrine of psychoanalysis as an antidote to sexual oppression. Although the pedology and intelligence tests were not favored in 1936, psychology retained its privileged position as an instrument of the Soviet state. Stalinist cleaning took a heavy toll and instilled a climate of fear in the profession, as elsewhere in Soviet society. After World War II, Jewish and former Jewish psychologists (including Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, and Aron Zalkind) were condemned; Ivan Pavlov (posthumous) and Stalin himself were exaggerated as Soviet psychological heroes. Soviet scholars were quickly released during Khrushchev Thaw, and cybernetics, linguistics, genetics, and other topics became acceptable again. There appears a new field called "engineering psychology" that studies the complex aspects of mental work (such as pilots and cosmonauts). Interdisciplinary studies became popular and scholars like Georgy Shchedrovitsky developed a systems theory approach to human behavior.
20th century Chinese psychology originally modeled the United States, with translations from American writers such as William James, the establishment of university psychology departments and journals, and group formation including the China Psychological Testing Association (1930) and the Chinese Psychological Society (1937). Chinese psychologists are encouraged to focus on education and language learning, with the aspiration that education will enable modernization and nationalization. John Dewey, who gave lectures to Chinese audiences in 1918-1920, had a significant influence on this doctrine. Chancellor T'sai Yuan-p'ei introduced him to Peking University as a bigger thinker than Confucius. Kuo Zing-who received his PhD at the University of California, Berkeley, became President of Zhejiang University and popularized behaviorism. After the Chinese Communist Party controlled the state, the Stalinist Soviet Union became a major influence, with Marxism-Leninism a prominent social doctrine and Pavlovian conditioning the concept of agreed behavioral change. Chinese psychologists elaborate Lenin's model of "reflective" consciousness, imagining "active consciousness" (tzu-chueh neng-tung-li) able to overcome the material conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. They develop the concept of "confession" ( jen-shih ) that directs the interface between individual perceptions and socially accepted worldviews. (Failure to conform to party doctrine is "wrong admission".) Psychological education is centered under the Chinese Academy of Sciences, overseen by the State Council. In 1951 the Academy created the Office of Psychological Research, which in 1956 became the Institute of Psychology. Most prominent psychologists were educated in the United States, and the first concern of the Academy was the re-education of this psychologist in Soviet doctrine. Child psychology and pedagogy for national cohesive education remains the primary goal of discipline.
Disciplinary organization
Institution
In 1920, douard ClaparÃÆ'¨de and Pierre Bovet created a new applied psychology organization called the International Congress of Psychotechnics applied to the Vocational Guide, later called the International Congress of Psychotechnics and later the International Association of Applied Psychology. The IAAP is considered the oldest international association of psychology. Today, at least 65 international groups are dealing with special psychological aspects. In response to male dominance in the field, female psychologists in the US established the National Council of Female Psychologists in 1941. The organization became the International Council of Female Psychologists after World War II, and the International Psychological Council in 1959. Several associations included the Association of Black Psychologists and Psychological Associations Asian Americans have appeared to promote non-European racial groups in this profession.
The federation federation of the national psychology community is the International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS), established in 1951 under the auspices of UNESCO, the UN's cultural and scientific authority. The department of psychology has since proliferated around the world, primarily based on the Euro-American model. Since 1966, Union has published the International Journal of Psychology . The IAAP and IUPsyS agreed in 1976 each to hold a congress every four years, on a staggered basis.
The International Union recognizes 66 national psychological associations and at least 15 others exist. The American Psychological Association is the oldest and largest. Its membership has increased from 5,000 in 1945 to 100,000 today. APA covers 54 divisions, which since 1960 continue to mushroom to include more specialization. Some of these divisions, such as the Society for the Psychological Studies of Social Issues and the American Psychology-Law Society, began as an autonomous group.
The Interamerican Society of Psychology, founded in 1951, aspires to promote psychology and co-ordinate psychologists in the western hemisphere. It holds the Interamerican Congress of Psychology and has 1000 members in 2000. The European Professional Psychology Association Federation, founded in 1981, represents 30 national associations with a total of 100,000 individual members. At least 30 other international groups organize psychologists in various regions.
In some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or represent themselves as "psychologists". The American Psychological Association defines a psychologist as someone with a doctorate in psychology.
Boundary
Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from parapsychology, which by the end of the nineteenth century enjoyed great popularity (including the interest of scholars like William James), and indeed constituted the lion's share of so-called "psychological" people. Parapsychology, hypnotism, and psychism are the main topics of the early International Congress. But the students from these fields were eventually annihilated, and were more or less disposed of from Congress in 1900-1905. Parapsychology survived for a while at Imperial University, with publications such as Clairvoyance and Thoughtography by Tomokichi Fukurai, but here too were largely shunned in 1913.
As a discipline, psychology has long tried to fend off allegations that it is "soft" science. Science philosopher Thomas Kuhn 1962 implicit criticism of psychology as a whole is in a pre-paradigmic state, lacking agreement on a thorough theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Since some areas of psychology depend on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics assert that psychology is not an objective science. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thought, and emotion, can not be measured directly and often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have devised various ways of measuring indirectly these elusive phenomenological entities.
Divisions still exist in the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique experiences of human individuals, which can not be understood only as data points in larger populations. Criticism inside and outside the field argues that mainstream psychology has become increasingly dominated by the "cult of empiricism" that limits the scope of its course by using only methods derived from physics. Feminist critics along these lines argue that claims of scientific objectivity obscure the values ​​and agendas (historically most men) of researchers. Jean Grimshaw, for example, argues that mainstream psychology research has advanced the patriarchal agenda through its efforts to control behavior.
School of thought
Biological
Psychologists generally regard the organism as the basis of the mind, and therefore a highly related field of study. Psychiatrists and neuropsychologists work at the interface of mind and body. Biological psychology, also known as physiological psychology, or neuropsychology is the study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes. The main research topics in this field include comparative psychology, which studies humans in relation to other animals, and perceptions involving the physical mechanics of sensation as well as neural and mental processing. Over the centuries, the main question in biological psychology is whether and how mental functioning can be localized in the brain. From Phineas Gage to H. M. and Clive Wearing, individual individuals with traceable mental problems to physical damage have inspired new discoveries in this area. Modern neuropsychology can be said to have originated in the 1870s, when in France Paul Broca traced the production of speech to the left frontal gyrus, thus also indicating the lateralisation of the hemisphere of brain function. Soon after, Carl Wernicke identified the related areas needed to understand the conversation.
The contemporary field of behavioral neuroscience focuses on the physical causes that support behavior. For example, physiological psychologists use animal models, usually rats, to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie certain behaviors such as learning and memory and fear responses. Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlation of psychological processes in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists perform psychological assessments to determine, for example, specific aspects and levels of cognitive deficits caused by brain damage or disease. The biopsychosocial model is an integrated perspective toward understanding awareness, behavior, and social interaction. This assumes that any given behavior or mental process affects and is influenced by dynamically interconnected biological, psychological and social factors.
Evolutionary psychology tests cognition and personality traits from an evolutionary perspective. This perspective shows that psychological adaptations evolved to solve repeated problems in the environment of the ancestors of humans. Evolutionary psychology offers a complementary explanation for most of the proximate or developmental explanations developed by other psychological fields: that is, the focus is primarily on the ultimate or "why?" questions, not direct or "how?" question. "How?" questions are more directly addressed by behavioral genetic research, which aims to understand how genes and environmental impact behaviors.
The search for the biological origins of psychological phenomena has long engaged in debates about the importance of race, and especially the relationship between race and intelligence. The idea of ​​white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose during the process of world conquest by Europeans. The fourfold classification of Carl von Linnaeus classifies Europeans as intelligent and powerful, Americans are content and free, Asians as rituals, and Africans as lazy and fickle people. Race is also used to justify the development of socially specific mental disorders such as drapetomania and dysaesthesia aethiopica - uncooperative African slave behavior. After the creation of experimental psychology, "ethnic psychology" emerged as a subdiscipline, based on the assumption that studying primitive races would provide an important link between the behavior of animals and the more evolved human psychology.
Behavior
Psychologists take human behavior as the main field of study. Much of the research in this field begins with tests on mammals, based on the idea that humans exhibit similar fundamental trends. Behavioral research has ever aspired to improve the effectiveness of techniques for behavior modification.
Early behavioral researchers studied stimulus-response pairs, now known as classical conditioning. They show that behavior can be linked through recurring associations with stimuli that give rise to pain or pleasure. Ivan Pavlov - best known for encouraging dogs to salivate in the presence of previously food-related stimuli - became a prominent figure in the Soviet Union and inspired followers to use his methods in humans. In the United States, Edward Lee Thorndike began a study of "connectionism" by trapping animals in the "puzzle box" and rewarding them for escape. Thorndike wrote in 1911: "There can be no moral warrant to study human nature unless it will enable us to control its actions." From 1910-1913, the American Psychological Association experienced a change of opinion, away from mentalism and toward "behavior", and in 1913 John B. Watson coined the term behaviorism for this school of thought. The famous Little Albert Watson experiment of the 1920s showed that repeated use of intrusive loud voices can instill phobias (rejection of other stimuli) in human infants. Karl Lashley, a close collaborator with Watson, examined the biological manifestations of learning in the brain.
Believed and expanded by Clark L. Hull, Edwin Guthrie, and others, Behaviorism became a widely used research paradigm. The new method of "instrumental" or "operant" conditioning adds the concept of reinforcement and punishment for behavior change models. The radical behaviorists avoid discussing the workings of the mind, especially the subconscious mind, which they find impossible to judge scientifically. The operant conditioning was first described by Miller and Kanorski and popularized in the US by B. F. Skinner, who emerged as the leading intellectual of the behaviorist movement.
Noam Chomsky conveys criticism that influences radical behaviorism on the grounds that it can not adequately explain the complex mental processes of language acquisition. Martin Seligman and colleagues found that dog conditioning results ("learned helplessness") against the predictions of behaviorism. Skinner's Behaviorism does not die, probably in part because it produces a successful practical application. Edward C. Tolman advanced the hybrid "cognitive behavior" model, especially with the 1948 publication discussing the cognitive maps used by rats to guess the location of food at the end of a modified maze.
The Association for International Behavioral Analysis was established in 1974 and in 2003 has members from 42 countries. This field has been very influential in Latin America, where it has a regional organization known as ALAMOC: La Asociación Neroinoamericana de AnÃÆ'¡lisis y ModificaciÃÆ'³n del Comportamiento . Behaviorism also gained a strong foothold in Japan, where it led to the Japanese Society of Animal Psychology (1933), Japan Special Education Association (1963), Japan Society Biofeedback Society (1973), Japan Association for Behavior Therapy (1976), Japan Association for Behavioral Analysis (1979), and the Japan Association for Behavioral Science Research (1994). Today the field of behaviorism is also often referred to as behavior modification or behavioral analysis.
Cognitive
Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental process that underlies mental activity. Perception, attention, reasoning, thinking, problem solving, memory, learning, language, and emotion are the areas of research. Classical cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose followers argue for an information-processing model of mental functioning, informed by functionalism and experimental psychology.
On a wider level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary company of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human-computer interactions, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computer simulations are sometimes used to model interesting phenomena.
Beginning in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others resurfaced as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitivist - related to information and its processing - and, ultimately, part of a wider cognitive science. Some call this development a cognitive revolution because it rejects the anti-mentalist dogma of behaviorism as well as psychoanalytic strictures.
Social learning theory experts, such as Albert Bandura, argue that the child's environment can make his own contribution to the behavior of a devout subject.
Technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and representations. British neurologist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used an experimental method to connect psychological phenomena with brain structure and function. The emergence of computer science, cybernetics and artificial intelligence shows the relative value of studying information processing in humans and machines. Research in cognition has proven practical since World War II, when assisted in understanding gun operations.
Popular and representative topics in this field are cognitive bias, or irrational thinking. Psychologists (and economists) have classified and described a large catalog of biases that often reappear in human thought. The availability of heuristics, for example, is a tendency to exaggerate the importance of something that happens to occur in the mind.
Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form cognitive behavioral therapy, a modified form of psychotherapy from a technique developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology is incorporated in conjunction with other disciplines, such as the philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cognitive discipline.
Social
Social psychology is the study of how humans think about each other and how they relate to one another. Social psychologists study topics such as the influence of others on individual behavior (eg suitability, persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about others. Social cognition combines elements of social and cognitive psychology to understand how people process, remember, or alter social information. The study of group dynamics reveals information about the nature and potential of leadership optimization, communication, and other phenomena that appear at least at the micro level. In recent years, many social psychologists have become increasingly interested in implicit measures, mediation models, and interactions of both people and social variables in accounting for behavior. Therefore, the study of human society is a potentially valuable source of information about the causes of psychiatric disorders. Some sociological concepts applied to psychiatric disorders are the social role, the role of sickness, social class, life events, culture, migration, social, and total institutions.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis consists of methods of investigating the experience of the mind and interpreting; a set of systematic theories of human behavior; and forms of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially conflicts that come from the unconscious mind. This school of thought originated in the 1890s with Austrian doctors including Josef Breuer (doctor), Alfred Adler (doctor), Otto Rank (psychoanalyst), and the most prominent Sigmund Freud (neurologist). Freud's psychoanalytical theory is largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observation. It became very famous, largely because it dealt with issues like sexuality, oppression, and unconsciousness. These subjects were very taboo at the time, and Freud provided the catalyst for their open discussion in a polite society. Clinically, Freud helped pioneer the method of free association and therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.
The Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, influenced by Freud, elaborates the theory of the collective unconscious - the primordial forces present in all human beings, displaying archetypes that have a profound effect on the mind. Jung's competing vision forms the basis for analytical psychology, which then leads to elementary and process-oriented schools. Other notable psychoanalytic scholars from the mid-20th century included Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D. W. Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into various schools of thought that could be called Neo-Freudian. Among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and interpersonal, Lacanian, and relational psychoanalysis.
Psychologists such as Hans Eysenck and philosophers including Karl Popper criticized psychoanalysis. Popper argues that psychoanalysis has been misunderstood as a discipline, while Eysenck says that psychoanalytic teaching has been contradicted by experimental data. By the end of the 20th century, the psychology department in American universities largely marginalized Freudian theory, regarded it as a "dry and dead" historical artifact. However, researchers in emerging fields of neuro-psychoanalysis today defend some of Freud's ideas on a scientific basis, while humanities think that Freud is not a "scientist at all, but... an interpreter".
Existential humanistic theory
Humanistic psychology developed in 1950 as a movement in academic psychology, as a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. The humanistic approach seeks to see the whole person, not just fragmented fragmented personality parts or isolated cognitions. Humanism focuses on unique human issues, such as free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, loneliness, freedom, and meaning. It emphasizes subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and attention to positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought are American psychologist Abraham Maslow, who formulated the hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Then, positive psychology opens a humanistic theme to a scientific exploration mode.
The American Association for Humanistic Psychology , formed in 1963, states:
Humanistic psychology is primarily oriented to the whole of psychology rather than different regions or schools. It means respecting people's values, respecting different approaches, open minds for acceptable methods, and interest in exploring new aspects of human behavior. As a "third power" in contemporary psychology, it deals with topics that have less space in existing theory and systems: for example, love, creativity, self, growth, organism, basic necessities of gratification, self-actualization, more values high, become, become, spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness, warmth, ego-transcendence, objectivity, autonomy, responsibility, meaning, fair-play, transcendental experience, peak experience, courage, and related concepts.
In the 1950s and 1960s, influenced by the philosophers SÃÆ'¸ren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger, psychologically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered the branch of existential psychology, including existential psychotherapy: a method based on the belief that inner conflicts within a person is due to the individual's confrontation with the nature of existence. Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may also be said to be from an existential school. Existential psychologists differ from more "humanistic" psychologists in their relatively neutral view of human nature and their relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasize the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, which indicate that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns, and that it can be driven by acceptance of the free will necessary for authentic, though often anxious, attention to death and prospects other future.
Austria's existential psychiatrist and Viktor Frankl's Holocaust victims drew evidence of the therapeutic power of reflection gathered from his own internees. He creates a variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a kind of existentialist analysis that focuses on the desire of meaning in one's life, which is contrary to Adler's doctrine of Nietzschean about the will to rule > or Freud's will for pleasure .
Themes
Personality
Personality psychology deals with patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions that endure - commonly referred to as personality - to the individual. Personality theories vary in different schools and different psychological orientations. They bring different assumptions about issues such as the role of unconsciousness and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interaction of the id, ego, and super-ego. To develop a personality construct taxonomy, characteristic theorists, by contrast, attempt to describe the scope of personality in terms of a number of discrete key traits using statistical data-reduction methods from factor analysis. Although the number of proposed properties has varied widely, early models based on biology proposed by Hans Eysenck, the third most cited psychologist of the 20th century (after Freud, and Piaget respectively), suggest that at least three major construction properties are required. to describe the structure of human personality: extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-stability, and psychoticism-normality. Raymond Cattell, the seventh most cited psychologist of the 20th century (based on scientifically reviewed scientific literature) empirically derives the theory of 16 personality factors at the level of major factors, and up to 8 broader second layer factors (at the level Eysenckian analysis), rather than the "Big Five" dimension. The personality dimension model receives increased support, and the dimension rating version has been included in DSM-V. Yet, despite most research into the various versions of the "Big Five" personality dimension, it seems necessary to move from the static conceptualization of a personality structure to a more dynamic orientation, where it is acknowledged that personality constructs are subject to learning and change over lifetime.
An early example of personality assessment is the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet, which was built during World War I. The Myers-Briggs Type indicator is popular, although it is psychometrically inadequate to assess individual "personality types" according to Carl Jung's personality theory. The behaviorist resistance to introspection leads to the development of Strong Vocational Interest Blank and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), in an attempt to ask empirical questions that focus less on the psychodynamics of respondents. However, the MMPI has been subjected to critical scrutiny, given that it adheres to ancient psychiatric niasology, and therefore it takes individuals to provide subjective and introspective responses to hundreds of items related to psychopathology.
The unconscious mind
The study of the subconscious mind, the part of the soul outside the individual consciousness that affects mind and behavior is the hallmark of early psychology. In one of the first psychological experiments conducted in the United States, C. S. Peirce and Joseph Jastrow in 1884 found that subjects could choose the heavier of two weights even if consciously unsure of the difference. Freud popularized this concept, in terms such as the slipping Freudian into popular culture, to interpret the unconscious intrusion of the subconscious mind into one's speech and actions. His 1901 text The Psychopathology of Everyday Life catalogs hundreds of daily events that Freud describes in terms of subconscious influences. Pierre Janet promotes the idea of ​​the subconscious mind, which can contain autonomous mental elements that are not available for subject control.
Despite Behaviorism, the unconscious mind has maintained its importance in psychology. Cognitive psychologists have used the "filter" model of attention, according to which many information processes occur below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain processes, constrained by nature and by simultaneous quantities, make their way through filters. Excessive research has shown that the subconscious mind of priming from certain ideas can quietly affect thoughts and behaviors. The significant obstacle in this study is to prove that the conscious mind of the subject has not yet understood a particular stimulus, as it is unreliable to self-report. For this reason, some psychologists prefer to distinguish between implicit and explicit memory. In another approach, one can also describe subliminal stimuli as fulfilling goal but not a subjective threshold .
The automated model, which became widespread after the exposure by John Bargh and others in the 1980s, illustrates the sophisticated process of carrying out a goal that can be selected and performed over an extended duration without awareness. Some experimental data show that the brain begins to consider taking action before the mind becomes aware of them. The influence of these unconscious forces on people's choices naturally contains the philosophical question of free will. John Bargh, Daniel Wegner, and Ellen Langer are some of the leading contemporary psychologists who portray the free will as illusions.
Motivation
Psychologists such as William James originally used the term motivation to refer to intention, in a sense similar to the concept be in European philosophy. With Darwinian and Freudian thinking steady, instinct also came to be seen as a major source of motivation. According to the drive theory, the power of the instinct joins into a single source of energy that gives a constant effect. Psychoanalysis, like biology, regards this power as the physical demand created by organisms in the nervous system. However, they believe that these forces, especially the sexual instinct, can become entangled and transformed in the soul. Classic psychoanalysis considers the struggle between the principle of pleasure and the principle of reality, roughly equal to the id and ego. Later, at Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud introduced the concept of death drive, a necessity for aggression, destruction, and psychic repetition of traumatic events. Meanwhile, behaviorist researchers use simple dichotomous models (pleasure/pain, rewards/punishment) and established principles such as the idea that thirsty creatures will enjoy drinking. Clark Hull inaugurated the latter idea with his drive-reduction model.
Hunger, thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation all seem to be a fundamental motivation for animals. Humans also seem to exhibit a more complex set of motivations - though theoretically this can be explained as the result of primordial instincts - including the desire to possess, self-image, self-consistency, truth, love, and control.
Motivation can be modulated or manipulated in various ways. Researchers have found that eating, for example, do not just rely on the basic needs of the organism to homeostasis - an important factor that led to the experience of hunger - but also the circadian rhythm, the availability of food, the palatability of foods, and cost. Abstract motivation is also easily formed, as evidenced by phenomena such as transmission wicket : the adoption of the goal, sometimes unconsciously, based conclusions about other people's ends. Vohs and Baumeister suggests that contrary to the cycle of the desire-fulfillment animal instincts, human motivation sometimes obey the rules "to get people who want": the more you get prizes such as self-esteem, love, drugs, or money, the more you want it. They suggest that this principle may even apply to food, drink, sex, and sleep.
Development
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people begin to understand, understand, and act in the world and how these processes change with age. It may focus on cognitive, affective, moral, social, or nerve development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in nature or to engage them in experimental tasks. These tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are fun for children and scientifically rewarding, and researchers even devise clever methods to study the mental process of the baby. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout life span, especially at other rapidly changing times (such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on a wide variety of psychological theories to inform their research.
Gen and environment
All the psychological traits under study are influenced by genes and environment, to varying degrees. Both sources of influence are often confused in individual or family observation studies. An example is the transmission of depression from depressed mothers to their children. The theory may suggest that her offspring, having a depressed mother in her neighborhood (her offspring), are at risk of depression. However, the risk of depression is also influenced by certain genes. The mother may both carry genes that contribute to her depression but will also pass those genes to her offspring, increasing the risk of her offspring for depression. Genes and environments in this simple transmission model are completely blended. Experimental and quasi-experimental behavioral genetic studies use genetic methodology to describe this confusion and to understand the nature and origin of individual differences in behavior. Traditionally this study has been conducted using twin studies and adoption studies, two designs where genetic and environmental influences can be partially unambiguous. Recently, the availability of genetic genetic technology or the microarray genome allowed researchers to directly measure the DNA variations of participants, and tested whether individual genetic variants in genes were associated with psychological and psychopathological traits through methods including genome association studies. One of the aims of the study is similar to positional cloning and its success in Huntington: once a genetic cause is found biological research can be done to understand how genes affect the phenotype. One major outcome of genetic association studies is the general finding that psychological and psychopathological traits, as well as complex medical illnesses, are highly polygenic, in which large numbers (in the order of hundreds to thousands) of genetic variants, each small effect, contribute to differences individuals in the behavioral traits or trends of the disorder. Active research continues to understand basic behaviors and genetic and environmental interactions.
Apps
Psychology covers many subfields and includes different approaches to learning about mental processes and behavior:
Mental tests
Psychological tests have ancient origins, such as checks for Chinese civil servants beginning in 2200 BC. Written examinations began during the Han dynasty (202 BC - 200 AD). In 1370, the Chinese system required a series of stratification tests, involving essay writing and knowledge of various topics. This system ended in 1906. In Europe, mental judgments took a more physiological approach, with theories of physiognomy - the judgment of characters based on the face - described by Aristotle in the 4th century BC of Greece. Physiognomy remains current through the Enlightenment, and adds the doctrine of phrenology: the study of mind and intelligence based on the simple assessment of neuroanatomy.
When experimental psychology came to Britain, Francis Galton was a prominent practitioner, and, with his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, was considered the inventor of a modern mental test (also known as
Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests for soldiers in World War I, mental tests became popular in the US, where it was soon applied to schoolchildren. The government-created National Intelligence Test was given to 7 million children in the 1920s, and in 1926 the College Entrance Examination Council created the Scholastic Capability Test to standardize college admissions. The results of intelligence tests are used to debate schools and separate economic functions - ie. Black American preferential training for manual work. These practices were criticized by black intellectuals such as Horace Mann Bond and Allison Davis. Eugenicists use mental tests to justify and regulate mandatory sterilization of individuals classified as mental retardation. In the United States, tens of thousands of men and women are sterilized. Setting a precedent that has never been canceled, the US Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of this practice in the case of 1907 Buck v. Bell .
Today mental tests are a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western society. Modern testing aspires to criteria including standardized procedures, consistency of results, interpretable outcome scores, statistical norms that describe population outcomes, and, ideally, effective predictions of behavior and outcomes beyond the test situation.
Mental health care
The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the US. The definition of this term is diverse and may include school psychology and counseling psychology. Practitioners usually include people who have graduated from doctoral programs in clinical psychology but may also include others. In Canada, the above groups are usually included in the broader category of professional psychology. In Canada and the United States, practitioners obtain bachelor's and doctoral degrees, then spend a year in internship and one year in post-doctoral education. In Mexico and most other Latin American and European countries, psychologists do not get a degree and a doctorate; instead, they take a professional course three years after high school. Clinical psychology is today the greatest specialty in psychology. This includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and eliminating psychological disorders, dysfunction or mental illness and to promote subjective wellbeing and personal development. The essence of the practice is psychological assessment and psychotherapy although clinical psychologists may also be involved in research, teaching, consulting, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.
Credit for the first psychological clinic in the United States usually goes to Lightner Witmer, who founded his practice in Philadelphia in 1896. Another modern psychotherapist is Morton Prince. For the most part, in the first part of the twentieth century, most mental health care in the United States was performed by a special medical doctor called a psychiatrist. Psychology enters the field with improved mental tests, which promise to improve the diagnosis of mental problems. For their part, some psychiatrists become interested in using psychoanalysis and other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy to understand and treat mental illness. In this type of treatment, specially trained therapists develop close patient relationships, which address desire, dreams, social relationships, and other aspects of mental life. The therapist tries to uncover the distressed material and understand why the patient creates a defense against certain thoughts and feelings. An important aspect of the therapeutic relationship is transference, in which a deep sense of unconsciousness in a patient redirects itself and becomes apparent in relation to the therapist.
Psychotherapy psychiatry blurs the distinction between psychiatry and psychology, and this trend continues with the emergence of community mental health facilities and behavioral therapy, non-psychodynamic models that use behaviorist learning theories to change patient actions. A key aspect of behavioral therapy is the empirical evaluation of the effectiveness of treatment. In the 1970s, cognitive-behavioral therapy emerged, using similar methods and now includes cognitive constructions that have gained popularity in theoretical psychology. A key practice in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy is to expose patients to the things they fear, based on the premise that their responses (fear, panic, anxiety) can be deconditioned.
Mental health care today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers. In 1977, Director of the National Institute of National Mental Health Bertram Brown described this shift as a source of "fierce competition and role confusion". The graduate program issued a doctorate in psychology (PsyD) emerged in the 1950s and experienced a rapid increase throughout the 1980s. This degree is intended to train practitioners who may conduct scientific research.
Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury - this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The emerging field of disaster psychology (see crisis intervention) involves professionals responding to large-scale traumatic events.
The work done by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by a variety of therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professionals and clients (usually individuals, couples, families, or small groups). Typically, this approach encourages new ways of thinking, feeling, or behavior. The four main theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavior, existential-humanistic therapy, and the system or family. There has been a growing movement to integrate therapeutic approaches, especially with increased understanding of issues concerning culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the emergence of more robust research findings on psychotherapy, there is evidence that most major therapies have the same effectiveness, with key key elements being strong therapeutic alliances. Therefore, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.
Diagnosis in clinical psychology typically follows the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM), the first handbook published by the American Psychiatric Association in 1952. New editions over time have increased in size and are more focused on medical language. The study of mental illness is called abnormal psychology.
Education
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, teaching psychology, and social psychology of schools
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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