Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other substances in food in relation to the maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. These include food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism, and excretion.
An organism's diet is what it eats, which is largely determined by the availability and palatability of food. For humans, a healthy diet includes the preparation of food and storage methods that keep the nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and that reduce the risk of foodborne illness.
In humans, unhealthy diets can cause deficiency-related diseases such as blindness, anemia, scabies, premature birth, stillbirth and cretinism, or excessive nutritional conditions such as obesity and metabolic syndrome; and chronic systemic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Malnutrition can lead to waste in acute cases, and stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition.
Video Nutrition
Sejarah nutrisi manusia
Antiquity
The first recorded dietary advice, carved into Babylonian stone tablets in about 2500 BC, warned people with pain inside to avoid eating onions for three days. Scurvy, later found as vitamin C deficiency, was first described in 1500 BC at Ebers Papyrus.
According to Walter Gratzer, the study of nutrition probably began in the 6th century BC. In China, the concept of qi is developed, a spirit or "wind" similar to what Western Europeans call pneuma . Foods are classified as "hot" (eg, meat, blood, ginger, and hot spices) and "cold" (green vegetables) in China, India, Malaya and Persia. Humours is developing probably first in China along with qi . Ho the Physician concluded that the disease is caused by lack of elements (Wu Xing: fire, water, soil, wood, and metal), and he classifies the disease as well as the prescribed diet. Around the same time in Italy, Alcmaeon of Croton (a Greek) writes about the importance of a balance between what goes in and what comes out, and warns that an imbalance will produce a disease characterized by obesity or laxness.
The first nutrition experiment recorded with human subjects is found in the Book of Daniel in the Bible. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during the Israeli invasion. Selected as court clerks, they must share good food and king wine. But they object, preferring vegetables (beans) and water according to their Jewish diet restrictions. The chief executive reluctantly agreed to the trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for ten days and then compared to the king's men. Appear healthy, they are allowed to continue their diet.
Around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains "homeomeric" (generative component), indicating the presence of nutrients. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, who recognized and was concerned about obesity, which may have been common in southern Europe at the time, said, "Let food be your medicine and your medicine into your diet." The works still associated with it, Corpus Hippocraticum , call for moderation and emphasize practice.
Salt, pepper and other spices are prescribed for various diseases in various preparations such as mixed with vinegar. In the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder believed that cabbage (or cabbage-eating urine) can heal digestive diseases, ulcers, warts, and poisoning. Living about the turn of the millennium, Aulus Celsus, an ancient Roman physician, believed in "strong" and "weak" foods (eg strong bread, as well as older animals and vegetables).
Galen to Lind
One should not ignore Galen's doctrines: In the use of his life in the 1st century through the 17th century, it is a heresy to disagree with him for 1500 years. Galen was a doctor for gladiators at Pergamon, and in Rome, a physician for Marcus Aurelius and three emperors who succeeded him. Much of Galen's teachings were collected and improved at the end of the eleventh century by Benedictine monks at Salerno School in the Salernitanal sanitatist regimens, which still have users in the 17th century. Galen believed in Hippocrates' body humor, and he taught that pneuma is the source of life. The four elements (earth, air, fire and water) combine into "shades", which combine into the state (four temperaments: optimistic, apathetic, irritable, and melancholy). Countries consist of attribute pairs (hot and humid, cold and moist, hot and dry, and cold and dry), made of four humor: blood, mucus, green bile (or yellow), and black bile (body shape from elements). Galen thinks that someone suffering from gout, kidney stones, or arthritis is a scandal, which Gratzer likened to Samuel Butler's Erehwon (1872) in which illness is a crime.
In the 1500s, Paracelsus was probably the first to criticize Galen openly. Also in the 16th century, scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism with burning candles. Leonardo did not publish his works on this subject, but he was not afraid to think for himself and he certainly did not agree with Galen. In the end, the works of the 16th century of Andreas Vesalius, sometimes called the father of modern human anatomy, overthrew Galen's ideas. He was followed by a piercing mind united with mysticism and the religion of the times was sometimes driven by Newton and Galileo mechanics. Jan Baptist van Helmont, who discovered several gases such as carbon dioxide, conducted the first quantitative experiments. Robert Boyle Chemistry advanced. Sanctorius measures weight. Doctor Herman Boerhaave modeled the digestive process. Physiologist Albrecht von Haller discovers the difference between nerves and muscles.
Sometimes forgotten during his lifetime, James Lind, a physician in the British navy, conducted his first scientific nutrition experiment in 1747. Lind found that lime juice rescued sailors who had been at sea for years due to scurvy, a deadly bleeding disorder and painful. Between 1500 and 1800, an estimated two million sailors have died from scurvy. This discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors were known as "limeys". Vitamin C important in citrus fruits will not be identified by scientists until 1932.
Lavoisier and modern science
Around 1770, Antoine Lavoisier discovers the details of metabolism, indicating that the oxidation of food is a source of body heat. Called the discoveries of the most fundamental chemistry of the 18th century, Lavoisier discovered the principle of conservation of mass. His ideas made the phlogiston burning theory to be obsolete.
In 1790, George Fordyce recognized the calcium needed for the survival of birds. In the early 19th century, elements of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen were recognized as the main components of food, and methods for measuring their proportions were developed.
In 1816, FranÃÆ'§ois Magendie discovered that dogs were fed only carbohydrates (sugar), fats (olive oil), and clear water from starvation, but dogs were also fed protein survival, identifying proteins as an important food component. William Prout in 1827 was the first person to divide food into carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. During the 19th century, Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Justus von Liebig quarreled for their belief that animals get protein directly from plants (animal protein and plants are the same and humans do not create organic compounds). With a reputation as a prominent organic chemist of his day but without credentials in animal physiology, Liebig grew rich in making food extracts such as beef broth and infant formula which were later found to have dubious nutritional value. In the 1860s, Claude Bernard discovered that body fat can be synthesized from carbohydrates and proteins, suggesting that the energy in blood glucose can be stored as fat or as glycogen.
In the early 1880s, Kanehiro Takaki observed that Japanese sailors (almost entirely composed of white rice) suffered beriberi (or endemic neuritis, a disease that causes heart problems and paralysis), but British sailors and Japanese naval officers did not. Adding different types of vegetables and meat to Japanese seafarers' diet prevented the disease, (not because of the increased protein as Takaki suspected but therefore introduced some parts per million of thiamine into the diet, then understood as a drug).
In 1896, Eugen Baumann studied iodine in the thyroid gland. In 1897, Christiaan Eijkman worked with native Javanese, who also suffered beriberi. Eijkman observed that chickens fed native white rice foods develop beriberi symptoms but remain healthy when fed unprocessed brown rice with whole outer skin. His assistant, Gerrit Grijns correctly identifies and describes the anti-beriberi substances in rice. Eijkman healed the natives by feeding them brown rice, finding that food can cure illness. More than two decades later, nutritionists learned that outside bran contains vitamin B1, also known as thiamine.
From 1900 to present
At the beginning of the 20th century, Carl von Voit and Max Rubner independently measured the energy expenditure of calories in a variety of animal species, applying the principles of physics in nutrition. In 1906, Edith G. Willcock and Frederick Hopkins showed that tryptophan amino acids help the health of mice but do not guarantee their growth. In the midst of a twelve-year effort to isolate them, Hopkins said in a 1906 lecture that "unexpected dietary factors," in addition to calories, protein, and minerals, are needed to prevent deficiency diseases. In 1907, Stephen M. Babcock and Edwin B. Hart started a feeding experiment, a grain of rice, which took nearly four years to complete.
In 1912, Casimir Funk coined the term vitamin, an important factor in diet, from the words "vital" and "amine", because the unidentified substances that prevent scabies, beriberi, and pellagra, are considered to be derived from ammonia. Vitamins were studied in the first half of the 20th century.
In 1913, Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis discovered the first vitamin, fat soluble vitamin A, then water-soluble vitamin B (in 1915, now known as the complex of some water soluble vitamins) and was named vitamin C as then- unknown substances that prevent scabies. Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Osborne also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby misidentified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. In 1922, McCollum destroyed vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop found vitamin E important for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "X food factor" until 1925.
In 1925, Hart discovered that a small amount of copper was required for iron absorption. In 1927, Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus synthesized vitamin D, and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928. In 1928, Albert Szent-GyÃÆ'¶rgyi isolated ascorbic acid, and in 1932 proved that it was vitamin C by preventing scurvy. In 1935, he synthesized it, and in 1937, he won the Nobel Prize for his efforts. Szent-GyÃÆ'¶rgyi summarizes many citric acid cycles.
In the 1930s, William Cumming Rose identified essential amino acids, important protein components that can not be synthesized by the body. In 1935, Underwood and Marston independently discovered the need for cobalt. In 1936, Eugene Floyd DuBois pointed out that school work and performance are linked to caloric intake. In 1938, Erhard Fernholz discovered the chemical structure of vitamin E and then he tragically disappeared. It was synthesized in the same year by Paul Karrer.
In 1940, the allotment in England during and after World War II took place in accordance with the nutritional principles made by Elsie Widdowson and others. In 1941, the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were first established by the National Research Council.
In 1992, the US Department of Agriculture introduced the Food Guide Pyramid. It replaced the Four Food Groups (1956-1992) and was replaced by the MyPlate (2011-present) concept.
Maps Nutrition
Nutrition
The list of nutrients people know is, in Marion Nestle's words, "almost certainly incomplete". In 2014, nutrition is thought to consist of two types: the required macro nutrients in relatively large quantities, and the required micronutrients in smaller amounts. A type of carbohydrate, dietary fiber, that is ingredients that can not be digested like cellulose, is necessary, both for mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reason remains unclear. Some nutrients can be stored - fat-soluble vitamins - while others are needed more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by lack of needed nutrients, or for some vitamins and minerals, too much nutrients are needed.
Macronutrien
Macronutrients are carbohydrates, fiber, fat, protein, and water. Makronutrien (excluding fiber and water) provides the structural material (amino acids from the built proteins, and the lipids from which the cell membrane and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some structural materials can be used to generate energy internally, and in both cases it is measured in Joule or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with capital C to distinguish them from less 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide about 17 kJ (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fat provides 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, although the net energy of both depends on factors such as absorption and digestion effort, which vary substantially from example to example. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are needed for other reasons.
Carbohydrate and fat molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fat is a triglyceride, made from various fatty acid monomers attached to the glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are very important in the diet: they can not be synthesized in the body. The protein molecule contains nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental component of proteins is the nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans can not make them internally. Some amino acids can be altered (by energy expenditure) into glucose and can be used for energy production, just like ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing proteins, the carbon skeleton of various amino acids can be metabolized into intermediates in cellular respiration; residual ammonia is removed mainly as urea in urine.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer units (sugars) they contain. They are a big part of food such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products, as well as potatoes, sweet potatoes, nuts, fruits, fruit juices and vegetables. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides contain one, two, and three or more units of sugar, respectively. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are usually long-chain branches of sugar units.
Traditionally, simple carbohydrates are believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore increase blood glucose levels faster than complex carbohydrates. But this is not accurate. Some simple carbohydrates (eg, fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (eg, fructolysis) that produce only partial catabolism into glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates can be digested at the same level as simple carbohydrates. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that added sugar should represent no more than 10% of the total energy intake.
Fiber
Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that is not fully absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when metabolized, it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances, the amount is less than that due to its limited absorption and cernaanya. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that can not be digested because humans do not have the enzymes necessary to dismantle it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially prunes, plums, and figs), and vegetables are a good source of dietary fiber. There are many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the possibility of digestive problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of the stool and softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, beans and vegetables, mainly stimulates peristalsis; - rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestine, which move digestively throughout the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in wheat, peas, peanuts, and many fruits, dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel that slows the movement of food through the intestine. This can help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow the absorption of sugar. In addition, fiber, probably mainly from grains, is thought to help reduce insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The association between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal cancer remains uncertain.
Fat
A food fat molecule usually consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bound to glycerol. They are usually found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone). Fat may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains attached to the hydrogen atoms, while the unsaturated fats have multiple carbon atoms binding together, so the molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than saturated fatty acids of the same length. Unsaturated fats can be further classified as monounsaturated (one double bond) or polyunsaturated (multiple double bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a kind of unsaturated fat with trans -submit symbols; this is rare in nature and food from natural sources; they are usually made in an industrial process called (partially) hydrogenated. There are nine kilocalories in each gram of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalactic acid, eleostearic acid and punicic acid, in addition to providing energy, are potent immune modulator molecules.
Saturated fats (usually from animal sources) have been a staple in many world cultures for thousands of years. Unsaturated fats (eg vegetable oils) are considered to be healthier, while trans fats should be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are usually solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are usually liquid (such as olive oil or linseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown to be very detrimental to human health, but have properties that are useful in the food processing industry, such as rancid resistance.
Essential fatty acids
Most of the fatty acids are not essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by releasing energy to do so. However, in humans, at least two fatty acids are very important and should be included in the diet. The right balance of essential fatty acids - omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids - seems also important for health, although definitive experimental demonstrations have been elusive. These two omega-polyunsaturated fatty acids are the substrate for the eikosanoid class known as prostaglandins, which have a role throughout the human body. They are hormones, in some ways. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or extracted from a seafood source, serves as a building block for the prostaglandin 3 series (eg, weak inflammatory PGE3 ). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) acts as a building block for serial prostaglandin 1 (eg, anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) acts as a building block for prostaglandin series 2 (eg pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken directly through food. A balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partially determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which is one of the reasons why the balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed to be important for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people usually consume large amounts of processed vegetable oil, which has reduced the amount of essential fatty acids along with too many omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.
The conversion rate of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from releasing membranes, thereby reducing prostaglandin balance from pro-inflammatory PGE2 (made from AA) to PGE1 anti-inflammatory (made from DGLA). In addition, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the delta-5-desaturase enzyme, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). The amount and type of carbohydrates consumed, along with some types of amino acids, can affect processes involving insulin, glucagon, and other hormones; therefore, the omega-3 versus omega-6 ratio has broad effects on general health, and specific effects on immune function and inflammation, and mitosis (ie cell division).
Protein
Proteins are structural materials in most animal bodies (eg muscles, skin, and hair). They also form enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids, characterized by the inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulfur (these components are responsible for the distinctive odor of burning proteins, such as keratin in hair). The body needs amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and replace damaged proteins (maintenance). Since there is no acid supply or storage of amino acids, amino acids must be present in the diet. Excess amino acids are removed, usually in the urine. For all animals, some amino acids are important (animals can not produce them internally) and some are not important (animals can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of them are very important and therefore should be included in the diet. Diets that contain adequate amounts of amino acids (especially important ones) are important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (burns, for example). Complete protein sources contain all essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source does not have one or more essential amino acids.
It is possible with a combination of proteins from two incomplete protein sources (eg rice and beans) to make a complete protein source, and the combination of characteristics is the basis of different culture cooking traditions. However, the source of complementary protein does not need to be eaten at the same meal to be shared by the body. The excess amino acids from proteins can be converted into glucose and used for fuel through a process called gluconeogenesis.
Water
Water is removed from the body in various forms; including urine and dirt, sweating, and water vapor in exhaling breath. Therefore, adequate rehydration is necessary to replace the lost fluid.
Initial recommendations for the amount of water needed for good health maintenance suggest that 6-8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. But the idea that one should consume eight glasses of water per day can not be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the National Food and Nutrition Board of the Research Council reads: "The common standard for diverse people is 1 milliliter for every food calorie, most of this quantity contained in prepared foods." Recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed major differences in the volume of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize the guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Policy (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) dietary guidelines for food-based and (ii) Reference value of food for water or intake enough daily (ADI). This specification is provided by calculating the sufficient intake of intake measured in the individual population by "the desired osmolarity value of urine and the desired water volume per unit of energy consumed."
For healthy hydration, current EFSA guidelines recommend a total water intake of 2.0 L/day for adult women and 2.5 L/day for adult men. This reference value includes water from drinking water, other drinks, and from food. About 80% of our daily water needs comes from the drinks we drink, with the remaining 20% ​​coming from food. The water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruits and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values ​​are estimated using a country-specific food account published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
The EFSA panel also determines the intake for different populations. The recommended intake volume in the elderly is similar to that of adults because although the energy consumption is lower, the group's water requirements increase due to the decreased capacity of the kidney concentration. Pregnant and lactating women need additional fluids to keep them hydrated. The EFSA Panel proposes that pregnant women should consume water in the same volume as non-pregnant women, plus an increased proportion for higher energy requirements, equal to 300 mL/day. To compensate for additional fluid output, lactating women require an additional 700 mL/day above the recommended intake value for women who are not breastfeeding. Dehydration and over-hydration - too little and too much water, respectively - can have dangerous consequences. Drinking too much water is one possible cause of hyponatremia, that is, low serum sodium.
Micronutrient
Micronutrients are minerals, vitamins, and others.
Minerals
Food minerals are the inorganic chemical elements needed by living organisms, apart from the four elements of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen present in almost all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since its purpose is to describe the less common elements in food. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned, including some metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods where they appear naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from oyster shells). Some minerals are absorbed more easily in ionic form found in these sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as a supplement; the most famous is the possibility of iodine in iodized salt that prevents mumps.
Macrominerals
Many important elements in relative quantity; they are usually called "mass minerals". Some are structural, but many act as electrolytes. Recommended dietary supplement (RDA) is greater than 150 mg/day, in alphabetical order (with informal perspective or traditional medicine in parentheses):
- Calcium, common electrolytes, but also structurally necessary (for muscle and digestive health, bone strength, some form of neutralizing acidity, can help clean up toxins, provide ionic signals for nerve and membrane functions)
- Chlorine as chloride ion; very common electrolytes; see sodium, under
- Magnesium, required to process ATP and related reactions (build bones, cause strong peristalsis, increase flexibility, increase alkalinity)
- Phosphorus, the required bone component; important for energy processing
- Potassium, a very common electrolyte (heart and nervous health)
- Sodium, a very common electrolyte; is generally not found in dietary supplements, although it is needed in large quantities, because ions are very common in foods: usually like sodium chloride, or ordinary salt. Excessive consumption of sodium can deplete calcium and magnesium, leading to high blood pressure and osteoporosis.
- Sulfur, for three essential amino acids and therefore many proteins (skin, hair, nails, liver, and pancreas). Sulfur is not consumed alone, but in the form of amino acids containing sulfur
Tracking minerals
Many elements are required in small amounts, usually because they play a catalytic role in the enzyme. Some mineral elements (RDA & lt; 200Ã, mg/day), in alphabetical order:
- Cobalt is necessary for the biosynthesis of the vitamin B12 family of coenzymes. Animals can not synthesize B12, and should get these cobalt-containing vitamins in their diet.
- The required components of copper from many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase
- Chromium is needed for sugar metabolism
- Iodine is not only needed for the biosynthesis of thyroxine but also - suspected - for other important organs such as breast, stomach, salivary glands, thymus, etc. (see Extrathyroidal iodine); for this reason iodine is required in greater quantities than others in this list, and is sometimes classified with macrominerals
- Iron is needed for many enzymes, and for hemoglobin and some other proteins
- Manganese (oxygen processing)
- Molybdenum is required for xanthine oxidase and associated oxidase
- Selenium is needed for peroxidase (antioxidant protein)
- Zinc is required for some enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and anhydrase carbonate
Vitamins
Vitamins are essential nutrients, which are necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is an exception, as it can be synthesized in the skin in the presence of UVB radiation, and many animal species can synthesize vitamin C.) Vitamin deficiency can lead to disease conditions, including mumps, scabies, osteoporosis, immune system disorders, cell metabolic disorders, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health, among many others. Excess of some vitamins is also harmful to health. The Food and Nutrition Council of the Institute of Medicine has established Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for seven vitamins.
Phytochemicals
Phytochemicals such as polyphenols are naturally produced compounds in plants (phyto means "plants" in Greek). In general, the term is used to refer to substances that seem essentially unimportant and may have a positive impact on health. To date, there is no conclusive evidence in humans that polyphenols or other non-nutrient compounds from plants have health-beneficial effects. Many of these substances from fruits, berries, nuts, spices, vegetables and whole grain foods are described as having antioxidant activity. While preliminary studies sought to reveal whether nutritional antioxidant supplements could improve health, one meta-analysis concluded that supplementation with vitamins A and E and beta-carotene did not provide benefits and may even increase the risk of death. Vitamin C and selenium supplements do not affect mortality. The health effects of non-nutrient phytochemicals such as polyphenols are not assessed in this review.
Flora of intestinal bacteria
Animal intestines contain a population of large intestinal flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. They are very important for digestion and are also influenced by the food consumed. Bacteria in the colon do many important functions for humans, including break down and help the absorption of fermentable fibers, stimulate cell growth, suppress the growth of harmful bacteria, train the immune system to respond only pathogens, produce vitamin B 12 , and defend against some infectious diseases. "Probiotics" refers to the idea of ​​deliberately consuming live bacteria in an attempt to alter bacterial population in the colon, for the benefit of human health or host animals. "Prebiotics (nutrition)" refers to the idea that consuming a bacterial energy source such as soluble fiber can support a population of beneficial bacteria in health in the colon. There is no scientific consensus on the health benefits of probiotics or prebiotics.
Animal nutrition
Carnivores and herbivorous diets are in stark contrast, with basic nitrogen and varying carbon proportions for their particular diet. Many herbivores depend on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from undigested plant cellulose while carnivorous animals are obliged to eat animal flesh to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients that can not be synthesized by their bodies.
Nutrition plants
Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements needed for plant growth. There are several principles that apply to plant nutrients. Some elements are directly involved in plant metabolism. However, this principle does not take into account so-called beneficial elements, whose existence, while not necessary, have a clear positive effect on plant growth.
Nutrition capable of limiting plant growth according to minimum Liebig law is considered an essential plant nutrient if the plant can not complete its full lifecycle without it. There are 16 essential soil nutrients, in addition to the three main elements of carbon and oxygen nutrients obtained by photosynthetic plants from carbon dioxide in the air, and hydrogen, obtained from water.
Plants absorb important elements of the soil through their roots and from the air (mainly consisting of nitrogen and oxygen) through the leaves. Green plants get their carbohydrate supplies from carbon dioxide in the air by photosynthesis. Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air, while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Soil nutrient uptake is achieved by cation exchange, where the root hair pumps hydrogen ions (H ) into the soil through the proton pump. This hydrogen ion replaces the cations attached to the negatively charged ground particles so that the cation is available to be picked up by the roots. In the foliage, the stomata are open to pick up carbon dioxide and release oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecule is used as a carbon source in photosynthesis.
Although nitrogen is abundant in Earth's atmosphere, very few plants can use this directly. Therefore, most plants require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow. This is made possible by the fact that most of the inert atmosphere nitrogen is altered in the process of fixation of nitrogen into a biological form that can be used in soil by bacteria.
Plant nutrition is a subject that is difficult to fully understand, in part because of the variation between different plants and even between different species or individuals of the given clones. Elements present at low levels can cause deficiency symptoms, and toxicity is possible at too high a level. Furthermore, the lack of an element may appear as a symptom of toxicity from other elements, and vice versa.
Suggestions and guides
Government policy
The Canadian Food Guide is an example of a government-run nutrition program. Produced by Health Canada, the guides recommend the amount of food, provide education on balanced nutrition, and promote physical activity in accordance with the nutritional needs mandated by the government. Like other nutritional programs around the world, the Canadian Food Guide divides nutrition into four major food groups: vegetables and fruit, grain products, milk and alternatives, as well as meats and alternatives. It is interesting to note that, unlike its American counterpart, Canada guides reference and provides an alternative to meat and dairy products, which can be linked to the growing vegan and vegetarian movements.
In the US, nutritional standards and recommendations are set jointly by the US Department of Agriculture and the US Department of Health and Human Services. The USDA diet and physical activity guidelines are presented in the MyPlate concept, which replaces the food pyramid, which replaces the Four Food Groups. The Senate Committee currently responsible for USDA supervision is Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Committee . Committee hearings are often broadcast in C-SPAN. The US Department of Health and Human Services provides a week-long menu sample that meets the government's nutritional recommendations.
Government program
Government organizations have worked on nutritional literacy interventions in non-primary health care settings to address nutritional information issues in the US. Some programs include:
The Family Nutrition Program (FNP) is a free nutrition education program that caters to low-income adults in the United States. The program is funded by the US Department of Agriculture's Food Nutrition Service (FNS) branch normally through the state academy of the institution-run institution. FNP has developed a series of tools to help families participating in the Food Stamp Program stretch their food dollars and establish healthy eating habits including nutrition education.
The Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (ENFEP) is a unique program currently operating in all 50 states and in American Samoa, Guam, Micronesia, Northern Marianas, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. It is designed to help resource-limited audiences in acquiring the modified knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors required for a nutritious diet, and to contribute to their personal development and the total increase in family diets and nutritional well-being.
Examples of country initiatives to promote nutrition literacy are Smart Bodies, a public-private partnership between the state's largest university system and the largest health insurance company, the Louisiana State Agricultural Center and Blue Cross and the Blue Shield of Louisiana Foundation. Launched in 2005, the program promotes a lifelong healthy lifestyle and a physically active lifestyle for children and their families. This is an interactive educational program designed to help prevent childhood obesity through classroom activities that teach children healthy eating habits and physical exercise.
Education
Nutrition is taught in schools in many countries. In England and Wales, the Personal and Social Education curriculum and Food Technology include nutrition, emphasizing the importance of a balanced diet and teaching how to read nutrition labels on packaging. In many schools, the Nutrition class will be included in the Family and Consumer department or the Department of Health. In some American schools, students are required to take a number of FCS classes or Health related classes. Nutrition is offered in many schools, and, if not its own class, nutrition is included in other FCS or Health classes such as Life Skills, Independent Life, Single Survival, New Student Connection, Health etc. In many Nutrition classes, students learn about food groups, food pyramids, Daily Recommendation allowances, calories, vitamins, minerals, malnutrition, physical activity, healthy food choices, portion sizes, and healthy living ways.
A 1985, report of the US National Research Council entitled Nutrition Education at US Medical School concluded that nutritional education in medical schools is inadequate. Only 20% of the schools surveyed taught nutrition as a separate course as needed. Surveys in 2006 found that this number increased to 30%. Membership by physicians in leading professional nutrition societies such as the American Society for Nutrition has generally declined from the 1990s.
Professional organizations
In the US, registered dietitian nutritionists (RDs or RDNs) are qualified health professionals to provide safe and evidence-based dietary advice, including an overview of what to eat, a thorough review of nutritional health, and a personalized nutrition care plan. They also provide preventive and therapeutic programs at workplaces, schools and similar institutions. Certified Clinical Nutrition Expert or CCN, is a trained health worker who also offers dietary advice on the role of nutrition in chronic diseases, including the possibility of prevention or remediation by overcoming nutritional deficiencies before switching to drugs. Government regulation, especially in terms of licensing, is currently less universal for CCN than RD or RDN. Other advanced Nutritional Professionals are Certified Nutrition Specialist or CNS. Certified Nutritional Expert This board usually specializes in obesity and chronic diseases. To become a certified board member, potential CNS candidates must pass the exam, just like a Registered Recipes Expert. This exam covers specific domains within the scope of health including; Clinical Intervention and Human Health.
Literacy nutrition
Findings from the 2003 Adult National Assessment for Adult Wisdom (NAAL) provide the basis for framing nutritional literacy issues in the US. NAAL introduces the first measure of "the level at which individuals have the capacity to acquire, process and understand the basic information and health services necessary to make sound health decisions" - the goal of Healthy People 2010 and where nutritional literacy can be considered an important part. On a scale below the basic, basic, intermediate and proficient, NAAL found 13 percent of American adults have proficient health literacy, 44 percent have moderate literacy rates, 29 percent have basic literacy and 14 percent below basic health knowledge levels. The study found that increased health literacy with education and people living below the poverty level had lower health literacy rates than those above.
Another study examining the health and nutrition status of residents in the lower Mississippi Delta found that 52 percent of participants had a high likelihood of limited literacy skills. While the precise comparison between the NAAL and Delta studies is difficult, mainly because of methodological differences, Zoellner et al. shows that the health literacy rate in the Mississippi Delta region differs from the general US population and that they help establish the scope of health literacy issues among adults in the Delta region. For example, only 12 percent of study participants identified the My Pyramid chart two years after it was launched by the USDA. The study also found a significant relationship between nutritional literacy and income levels and nutritional literacy and educational attainment which further illustrates the priorities for the region.
These statistics show the complexity around the lack of health/nutrition literacy and reveal the extent to which they are embedded in social structures and interconnected with other problems. Among these issues are lack of information about food choices, lack of understanding of nutritional information and its application to individual circumstances, limited or difficult access to healthy food, and cultural influences and socio-economic constraints such as low levels of education and high poverty levels reducing opportunities for eating and healthy living.
The relationship between low health literacy and poor health outcomes has been widely documented and there is evidence that some interventions to improve health literacy have resulted in successful outcomes in primary care settings. Much more needs to be done to advance our understanding of the specific intervention of nutritional literacy in the regulation of non-primary care to achieve better health outcomes.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition refers to the inadequate, excessive, or unbalanced consumption of nutrients by an organism. In developed countries, malnutrition is most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption. In developing countries, malnutrition is more likely to be caused by poor access to a variety of nutritious foods or inadequate knowledge. In Mali, the Semi-Arid Tropical Tropical Research Institute (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to produce equinut , a healthy and nutritious version of traditional recipes <-> in- dÃÆ'¨guÃÆ'Â ¨ (consisting of peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The goal is to improve nutrition and livelihood by producing products that can be made and sold by women, and which will be accepted by the local community because of their local heritage.
Although excess nutrients and excess nutrients are often viewed as human problems, pets can become underfed or overfed by their owners, pets can lack macro and micro nutrients, affect growth and health, and wild animals can be malnourished. to the point of hunger and death.
Nutritionism is the view that excessive dependence on food science and nutrition studies can lead to poor nutrition and poor health. Originally credited to Gyorgy Scrinis, and popularized by Michael Pollan. Because nutrients are not visible, policy makers rely on nutritionists to advise on food choices. Because science has an incomplete understanding of how food affects the human body, Pollan argues, nutrition can be blamed for many health problems related to diet in the Western World today.
Not Enough
The US Food and Nutrition Council sets the Estimated Average Needs (EAR) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and minerals. EARs and RDAs are part of the food reference intake. DRI documents describe signs and symptoms of malnutrition.
Overdeliver
The US Food and Nutrition Council establishes Tolerable Tolerable Intake Level (known as UL) for vitamins and minerals when the evidence is sufficient. ULS is defined as a safe fraction below the amount that is proven to cause health problems. ULs are part of the food reference intake. The European Food Safety Authority also reviews the same security question and establishes its own ULs.
Unbalanced
When too many nutrients one or more are present in the diet to the exclusion of the right amount of other nutrients, the diet is said to be unbalanced. High-calorie foods such as vegetable oil, sugar and alcohol are referred to as "empty calories" because they supplant diet foods that also contain proteins, vitamins, minerals and fiber.
Disease is caused by improper nutrition consumption
Mental agility
Research shows that raising awareness of nutritious food choices and establishing long-term healthy eating habits has a positive effect on cognitive and spatial memory capacity, with the potential to improve students' ability to process and retain academic information.
Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policy makers, and food service contractors managed to mandate enhanced nutritional content and upgrading of nutritional resources in school cafeterias from elementary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been shown to have a close relationship with the success of education as a whole. Currently, less than 10% of American students report that they consume five servings of fruits and vegetables recommended daily. Better nutrients have been shown to affect the performance of cognitive and spatial memory; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests. In another study, those who ate yogurt had a better performance in thinking when compared to those who consumed caffeine-free diet soda or sweets. Lack of nutrients has been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951.
- "Better learning performance is associated with a diet-induced effect on learning and memory skills".
- The "nutrition-learning nexus" shows a correlation between diet and learning and has an application in a higher education setting.
- "We found that better-performing children performed better in school, partly because they went to school early and thus had more time to learn but mostly because of the learning productivity bigger per year school. "
- 91% of students feel good health, while only 7% eat the recommended daily allowances and fruits.
- Nutrition education is an effective and applicable model in higher education settings.
- More "active" learning models that include nutrition are ideas that take steam at all levels of the learning cycle.
There are limited available studies that directly connect the Average Student Points (G.P.A.) to their overall nutritional health. Additional substantive data is needed to prove that overall intellectual health is closely related to one's diet, not just another correlation error.
Mental disorders
Treatment of nutritional supplements may be suitable for severe depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and compulsive obsessive disorders, the four most common mental disorders in developed countries. The most studied supplements for mood elevation and stabilization include eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (each omega-3 fatty acids contained in fish oil but not in flaxseed oil), vitamin B12, folic acid, and inositol.
Cancer
Cancer is now common in developing countries. According to a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "In developing countries, liver, stomach and esophageal cancer are more common, often associated with the consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods, such as smoked or salted foods, and parasitic infections that attack organs." advanced "tend to have cancer associated with prosperity or 'Western lifestyle' - colon, rectal, breast and prostate cancers - which can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age."
Metabolic syndrome
Some lines of evidence suggest lifestyle induced hyperinsulinemia and decreased insulin function (ie insulin resistance) as a determinant factor in many disease states. For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly associated with chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly associated with adverse developments such as arterial microtrauma and clot formation (ie, heart disease) and excessive cell division (ie, cancer). Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, increased blood sugar, increased blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and a decrease in HDL cholesterol. The negative effects of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.
Obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can lead to type 2 diabetes. Almost all individuals with type 2 diabetes and at least 2 have marked insulin resistance. Although the relationship between overweight and insulin resistance is obvious, the cause of insulin resistance (probably varied) remains unclear. It is important to note that it has been shown that proper exercise, a more regular dietary intake, and reduced glycemic load (see below) can all reverse insulin resistance in overweight individuals (and thus lower their blood sugar levels, in those with type 2 diabetes). ).
Obesity can alter hormonal and metabolic status unfavorably through resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle can occur in which insulin/leptin and obesity resistance worsen each other. Satanic cycle is triggered by high continuous insulin and leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of a high intake of insulin/leptin stimulating food and energy. Both insulin and leptin usually serve as a satiety signal to the hypothalamus in the brain; However, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite the large body fat stores. In addition, the reduction of the leptin signal to the brain can reduce the normal effects of leptin to maintain the right metabolic rate.
There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors - such as refined carbohydrate intake, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, saturated and trans fatty acids intake, and low vitamin/mineral intake - contribute to the development of insulin resistance and leptin. In any case, analogous to the way modern human-made contamination might have the potential to overwhelm environmental capability to maintain homeostasis, the recent explosive introduction of high glycemic index and processed foods into human diet may have the potential to overwhelm the body's capabilities. to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the epidemic of metabolic syndrome).
Antinutrient
Antinutrients are natural or synthetic compounds that interfere with the absorption of nutrients. Nutrition studies focus on the antinutrition commonly found in food and beverage sources.
Sugar consumption in the United States
The recent increase in sugar intake has been linked to the emergence of several diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and heart disease that have recently occurred. Increased sugar consumption has been tied to all three, among others. Obesity rates have more than doubled in the last 30 years among adults, from 15% to 35% in the United States. Obesity and diet are also high risk factors for diabetes. In the same timeframe that obesity doubled, the number of diabetes quadrupled in America. Adding weight, especially in the form of belly fat, and high sugar intake is also a high risk factor for heart disease. Both sugar intake and fatty tissue increase the chances of elevated LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream. Increased cholesterol Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), is a major factor in heart disease. To avoid all the dangers of sugar, moderate consumption is paramount.
Processed foods
Since the Industrial Revolution some two hundred years ago, the food processing industry has created many technologies that help keep food fresh longer and change the state of fresh food when it comes to nature. Refrigeration is the main technology used to maintain freshness, while many technologies have been created to allow food to last longer without being spoiled. These latter technologies include pasteurization, autoclavation, drying, salting, and separation of various components, all of which appear to alter the original nutrient content of the food. Pasteurization and autoclavation (heating techniques) undoubtedly increase the safety of many common foods, preventing epidemic bacterial infections. But some new (food) processing technologies have also declined.
Modern separation techniques such as milling, centrifugation, and emphasis have enabled the concentration of certain food components, resulting in flour, oil, juice, etc., and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins and minerals. Inevitably, such large-scale concentrations alter the nutritional content of food, save certain nutrients while eliminating others. Heating techniques can also reduce the food content of many hot-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other undiscovered substances. Because nutritional value is reduced, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'enriched' with some of the most important nutrients (usually certain vitamins) lost during processing. However, processed foods tend to have a lower nutritional profile compared to whole fresh foods, due to the high content of sugar and GI starch, potassium/sodium, vitamins, fiber, and essential (un Essential) essential fatty acids. In addition, processed foods often contain harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.
A dramatic example of the effects of food processing on the health of the population is the history of the beriberi epidemic in people living on polished rice. Removing the outer layer of rice by polishing it removes with it an important vitamin tiamina, causing beriberi. Another example is the development of scurvy in infants in the late 19th century in the United States. It turns out that most patients are given milk that has been given heat treatment (as suggested by Pasteur) to control bacterial diseases. Pasteurization is effective against bacteria, but destroys vitamin C.
As mentioned, lifestyle-related diseases and obesity are becoming increasingly common throughout the world. There is little doubt that the widespread adoption of some modern food processing technologies has contributed to this development. The food processing industry is a major part of the modern economy, and therefore influential in political decisions (eg, nutritional recommendations, agricultural subsidies). In any profit-driven economy, health considerations are hardly a priority; Effective cheap food production with long shelf life is more of a trend. In general, whole fresh foods have a relatively short shelf life and are less profitable to produce and sell than processed foods. Thus, consumers are left with a choice between more expensive, but superior nutrients, whole, fresh, and inexpensive foods, usually malnourished foods, processed. Because processed foods are often cheaper, more convenient (both in purchasing, storage, and preparation), and more available, low-nutrient food consumption has increased worldwide along with many nutritional-related health complications.
Ethanol
Pure ethanol provides 7 calories per gram. For distilled spirits, one standard portion in the United States is 1.5 ounces of fluid, which at 40% ethanol (80 proof), will be 14 grams and 98 calories. Wine and beer contain the same ethanol range for 5 ounces and 12 ounces, respectively, but these drinks also contain non-ethanol calories. A 5-ounce serving of wine contains 100 to 130 calories. A serving of 12 ounces of beer contains 95 to 200 calories. According to the US Department of Agriculture, based on the NHANES 2013-2014 survey, women age 20 and above consume an average of 6.8 grams/day and men consume an average of 15.5 grams/day. Ignoring the non-alcohol contribution of the drink, the average contribution of ethanol calories is 48 and 108 cal/day. Alcoholic drinks are considered empty calorie foods because apart from calories, this does not provide the essential nutrients.
See also
Notes and references
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