Sperm donation is a provision (or "donation") by a man (known as a sperm donor) of sperm (known as sperm donor), especially for it is used in artificial insemination from women or women who are not sexual partners.
Sperm may be donated privately and directly to the intended recipient, or through a sperm bank or fertility clinic. Sperm donation allows a man to be a father to a third-party woman, and therefore, is categorized as a third-party reproduction form. Pregnancy is usually achieved by using donor sperm in reproductive aid technology (ART) that includes artificial insemination (either through intracervical insemination (ICI) or intrauterine insemination (IUI) at the clinic, or intravaginal insemination at home). Less commonly, donor sperm can be used in in-vitro fertilization (IVF).
The main beneficiaries of donor sperm are single women, lesbian couples and heterosexual couples who suffer from male infertility.
Sperm donors and 'fertility treatments' using donor sperm can be obtained at a sperm bank or fertility clinic. Here, the recipient can select donor sperm based on donor characteristics, such as appearance, personality, academic ability, race, and many other factors. A sperm bank or clinic may be subject to state or professional regulations, including restrictions on donor anonymity and the number of offspring that may be produced, and there may be other legal protections of the rights and responsibilities of beneficiaries and donors. Some sperm banks, either by choice or by regulation, limit the amount of information available to potential recipients; the desire to get more information about donors is one of the reasons why a recipient can choose to use a known donor or private donation.
But the conception is achieved, the nature and course of pregnancy will be the same as achieved through sexual intercourse, and the male donor will be the biological father of every child born of his contribution.
Generally sperm donors are not intended to be the father of a child resulting from legitimate sperm or de jure . However, this law could have implications for the relationship with a legitimate father or the absence of a father. The law can also regulate the fertility process through sperm donations at fertility clinics. This may make the provision that a sperm donor may be anonymous or not, and may provide an adult donor with a descendant of the right to track his biological father. Where sperm is donated by natural insemination, ie. where donors engage in sexual relations with recipient women, the law in each country will always provide that the man is the father of every child produced, even where the sperm is provided by a third party man who is not a regular female sexual partner and where an explicit purpose is to secure a pregnancy.
Video Sperm donation
Legal
Laws governing sperm delivery issues such as allowable reimbursement or payment to sperm donors, donor rights and responsibilities for their biological offspring, children's right to know their father's identity, and procedural issues. Laws vary greatly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In general, the law is more likely to ignore the biological links of sperm donors to children, so that he will not have child support or child rights obligations. Without special legal protection, the court may order a sperm donor to pay for child support or recognize the rights of his or her parents, and will always do so where insemination is done in a natural, not artificial way.
Laws in many jurisdictions limit the number of offspring that sperm donors can inflict, and who may be the recipients of donor sperm.
Maps Sperm donation
Usage
The purpose of sperm donation is to provide pregnancies for women whose male partners are infertile or, more commonly, for women who do not have male partners. Direct physical contact between the parties is avoided because the donor sperm is placed in the female body by artificial means (but see Natural Insemination).
The sperm donation preserves the recipient's sexual integrity, but she can still benefit from a man's reproductive ability to give him a pregnancy.
Sperm donors are prepared for use in artificial insemination of intrauterine insemination (IUI) or intra-cervical insemination (ICI). Less commonly, donor sperm prepared for use in other assisted reproduction techniques such as IVF and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). Sperm donors can also be used in surrogacy settings either with artificial insemination (known as traditional surrogacy) or by implanting in a replacement embryo that has been made using a sperm donor along with an egg from a donor or from 'assigning a woman' (known as gestacy surrogacy ). The reserve embryo of this process may be donated to another woman or substitute. Sperm donors can also be used to produce embryos with donor eggs which are then donated to women who are genetically unrelated to the child they produce.
In medical terms, using a donor sperm to reach a pregnancy is no different from using sperm from a female male partner, and genetically a child produced by a sperm donor will be a child of a sperm donor and a woman whose egg is fertilized by his sperm (though not necessarily a biological mother).
Any procedure, such as artificial insemination or IVF, using donor sperm to impregnate women who are not spouses, or related to men who provide sperm, may be referred to as
A Swedish study concluded that 94% of potential donors would be willing to donate to single women and 85% would be willing to donate to lesbian or lesbian lesbian women. A review of two studies found that 50 to 68% of donors would actually contribute to lesbian couples, and 40 to 64% would be donated to single women.
Provision
Sperm donors can donate sperm personally or through sperm banks, sperm agents, or other brokerage arrangements. Private donors most often choose artificial insemination.
Generally, a man who provides sperm as a sperm donor hands over all legal and other rights to the biological children produced from sperm. However, in a private setting, multiple levels of co-ordination may be agreed upon, even though the enforceability of the agreement varies according to jurisdiction.
Donors may or may not be paid, in accordance with local laws and agreed arrangements. Even in unpaid settings, fees are often replaced. Depending on local laws and personal arrangements, men may either donate anonymously or agree to provide identification information to their future offspring. Private donations facilitated by agents often use "directed" donors, when a man directs his sperm to be used by a particular person. Non-anonymous donors are also called "known donors", "open donors" or "donors of identity disclosure".
A survey review amongst the donors came to the result that media and advertising were most efficient at attracting donors, and that the internet became increasingly important in this goal. Recruitment through partners with infertility problems in the social environment of sperm donors does not seem to be important in overall recruitment.
Sperm Bank
A sperm donor will usually donate sperm to a sperm bank under contract, which usually determines the period in which the donor will be required to produce sperm, which generally range from six to 24 months depending on the number of pregnancies that the sperm bank intends to generate from the donor. If sperm banks have access to world markets such as direct sales, or sales to clinics outside their own jurisdictions, men may contribute for a longer period of two years, as the risk of estrangement is reduced (although local laws vary greatly).
The contract may also specify places and hours for donations, the requirement to notify the sperm bank in case of acquiring a sexual infection, and the requirement for non-sexual intercourse or to masturbate during the period usually 2-3 days before making a donation.
The sperm provided by the sperm bank will be produced by a donor present at the sperm bank to ensure the donor's identity at every opportunity. Donors masturbate to provide ejaculation or by using electrical stimulators, although special condoms, known as condom collections, can be used to collect semen during sexual intercourse. Ejaculation is collected in small containers, which are usually extended by chemicals to provide a number of vials, each of which will be used for separate insemination. Sperm is frozen and quarantined, usually for a period of six months, and the donor is retested before sperm is used for artificial insemination.
Advertising agencies
In some jurisdictions, sperm can be donated through an agent. The agency can recruit donors, usually through the Internet. Donors can undergo the same tests and tests as required by sperm banks, although clinics and institutions are not always subject to the same regulatory regime. In the case of the agency, the sperm will be supplied to the recipient of a fresh woman rather than frozen.
A woman chooses a donor and notifies the agent when she needs a donation. The Agency informs donors who must supply sperm on the exact day nominated by the recipient. The agency will usually provide sperm donors with a male collection kit usually including a collection of condoms and containers for sperm delivery. These are collected and sent by couriers and women use donor sperm to inseminate themselves, usually without medical supervision. This process maintains anonymity and allows donors to produce sperm in the privacy of their own homes. A donor will usually produce a sample once or twice during the recipient's fertile period, but the second sample each time may not have the same fecundity of the first sample because it is produced too soon after the first. The pregnancy rate with this method varies more than that achieved by a sperm bank or fertility clinic. Transit time may vary and this has a significant effect on sperm viability so that if the donor is not near the female recipient, the sperm may worsen. However, the use of fresh cement, as opposed to frozen, would mean that the sample has a greater fecundity and can result in higher pregnancy rates.
Sperm agents can impose limits on the number of pregnancies achieved from each donor, but in practice this is more difficult to achieve than for sperm banks where the whole process may be more manageable. Most sperm donors only contribute for a limited period of time, and since sperm supplied by sperm agents are not processed into a number of different vials, there is a practical limit on the number of pregnancies normally produced in this way. A sperm institute will, for the same reason, have a smaller likelihood than a sperm bank to allow a woman to have the next child by the same donor.
Sperm agencies are largely unregulated and, because sperm are not quarantined, can carry sexually transmitted diseases. This lack of regulation causes authorities in some jurisdictions to bring legal action against sperm agents. Institutions usually require IMS testing for donors, but such tests can not detect recent infections. Donors who provide sperm in this way may not be covered by laws that apply to donations through sperm banks or fertility clinics and will, if traced, be considered the legitimate father of every child produced.
Personal donation or "directional"
Couples or individuals who require insemination by third parties may seek personal and direct assistance from friends or family members, or may obtain a "private" or "directed" donation by advertising or through a broker. Some websites attempt to connect recipients with sperm donors, while ads in gay and lesbian publications are common.
The recipient may already know the donor, or if arranged through the broker, the donor can meet the recipients and become known by them. Some brokers facilitate contacts that maintain a semi-anonymous identity for legal reasons. Where personal or directed donations are used, sperm need not be frozen.
Private donations can be free - avoiding the significant cost of more medical insemination - and fresh semen rather than frozen are generally considered to increase the likelihood of pregnancy. However, they also carry a higher risk associated with contact with body fluids or non-cretored fluids. The legal treatment of donors varies across jurisdictions, and in most jurisdictions (eg, Sweden), private and directed donors have no legal protection that may be available to anonymous donors. However, laws from several countries (eg New Zealand) recognize written agreements between donors and recipients in a manner similar to donations through sperm banks.
Kits are available, usually on-line, for artificial insemination for private donor use, and these kits generally include collection pots, syringes, ovulation tests and pregnancy tests. Vaginal speculum and soft cups may also be used. STI test kits are also available but this only produces a 'snap-shot' result and, since sperm will not be frozen and quarantined, there will be risks associated with it.
Natural Insemination
Insemination through sexual intercourse is known as natural insemination (NI). Where natural insemination is performed by someone who is not an ordinary female sexual partner, and in circumstances where an explicit purpose is to secure a pregnancy, this can be referred to as 'sperm donation through natural insemination'.
Natural insemination has not been recognized in any country other than the natural procreation process where sperm donors and biological fathers are responsible for child care and support. A woman who is pregnant through natural insemination will therefore always have the legal right to claim child support from donors and donors have legal rights to child custody. Imagine through natural insemination being considered a natural process, so the biological father will always be responsible for child support and child custody. Therefore the law makes a good distinction based on the method of conception: the biological relationship between father and child and the reason for the attainment of pregnancy will be the same whether the child is conceived naturally or in an artificial way, but the law of its position will be different. In some countries and in some situations, sperm donors may be legally responsible for every child they produce, but with NI the father's legal risk to donors is always absolute. Natural insemination donors will therefore often donate without revealing their identity.
Nevertheless, some private sperm donors offer natural and artificial insemination, or they may offer natural insemination after attempts to reach the concept through artificial insemination have failed. Some women also seek natural insemination for various reasons including their desire for a "natural" concept.
Natural insemination by donors typically avoids the need for expensive medical procedures that may require third-party intervention. It may be lacking some safety precautions and checks are usually built into the process of artificial insemination but supporters claim that it results in higher pregnancy rates. A more 'natural' conception does not involve third party interventions and intrusions. However, it has not been medically proven that natural insemination has an increased chance of pregnancy.
NI is generally performed only during the fertile period of women, as with other insemination methods, to achieve the best chance of pregnancy.
Sperm bank process
Sperm donors are usually advised not to ejaculate for two to three days before giving a sample, to increase sperm count. Sperm donors produce and collect sperm in a bank or sperm clinic by masturbating or during intercourse with the use of a condom collection.
Preparing for sperm
Banks and clinic sperm can "wash" sperm samples to extract sperm from the remaining ingredients in the semen. Unwashed sperm can only be used for ICI (intra-cervical) insemination, to avoid cramps, or for IVF/ICSI procedures. These can be washed after being melted for use in IUI procedures. A cryoprotectant semen sperm is added if the sperm is placed in frozen storage in liquid nitrogen, and the sample is then frozen in a vial or straw. One sample will be divided into 1-20 vials or straws depending on the quantity of ejaculation, whether the sample was washed or not washed, or whether it is prepared for IVF use. The following analysis of individual sperm, straw or individual donor bottles can be prepared that contain different amounts of motile sperm post-melting. The amount of sperm in a straw prepared for IVF use, for example, will be far less than the number of motile sperm in a straw prepared for ICI or IUI and therefore there will be more IVF straw per ejaculation. After the required quarantine period, the sample is thawed and used for female insemination through artificial insemination or other ART treatments.
Medical issues
Screening
Sperm banks typically filter potential donors for genetic diseases, chromosomal abnormalities and sexually transmitted infections that can be transmitted through sperm. The screening procedure generally also includes quarantine periods, in which samples are frozen and stored for at least six months after the donor will be retested for sexually transmitted diseases (STIs). This is to ensure no new infections are acquired or have developed during the donation period. Giving a negative result, sperm samples can be removed from quarantine and used in the treatment. Children conceived through sperm donations had a birth defect rate of nearly a fifth compared with the general population.
Required sample per donor descent
The number of donor samples (ejaculation) needed to help deliver a child varies greatly from donor to donor, and from clinic to clinic. However, the following equation generalizes the major factors involved:
Untuk inseminasi intracervical :
- N adalah berapa banyak anak yang dapat ditolong oleh satu sampel.
- V s adalah volume sampel (ejaculate), biasanya antara 1,0Ã, mL dan 6,5Ã, mL
- c adalah konsentrasi sperma motil dalam sampel setelah pembekuan dan pencairan , secitar 5-20 juta per ml tetapi bervariasi secara substansial
- r s adalah tingkat kehamilan by siklus, before 10% hole 35%
- n r adalah jumlah total sperm motil yang direkomendasikan untuk inseminasi vagina (VI) atau inseminasi intra-serviks (ICI), sekitar 20 juice pr. ml.
Pregnancy rates increase with increasing number of motile sperm used, but only to a certain extent, when other factors become limited.
With these figures, one sample will provide an average aid that gives rise to children from 0.1 to 0.6, that is, it actually takes an average of 2-5 samples to make a child.
Untuk inseminasi intrauterin , fraksi sentrifugasi ( f c ) dapat ditambahkan that persamaan:
On the other hand, only 5 million motile sperm may be required per cycle with IUI ( n r = 5 million)
So, only 1-3 samples may be needed for a child if used for IUI.
Using antiretroviral treatment such as IVF can produce one donor sample (or ejaculate) that results in an average of more than one birth. However, the actual number of births per sample will depend on the actual ART method used, the age and medical condition of the woman giving birth to the child, and the quality of the embryo generated by conception. Sperm donors are less used for IVF treatment than for artificial insemination. This is because IVF treatment is usually necessary only when there are problems with pregnant women, or where there are 'male factor problems' involving female partners. Sperm donors are also used for IVF in surrogacy settings where embryos can be made in IVF procedures using donor sperm and these are then implanted in the substitute. In cases where IVF treatment is employed using a donor sperm, a surplus embryo may be donated to another woman or partner and used in an embryo transfer procedure. When donor sperm is used for IVF treatment, there is a risk that large numbers of children will be born from a single donor because a single ejaculation can produce up to 20 straws for IVF use. Single straws can fertilize a number of eggs and this can have a 40% to 50% pregnancy rate. Embryo 'Spare' from donor care is often donated to women or other couples. Therefore, many sperm banks limit the amount of semen from each donor prepared for IVF use, or they can limit the time period in which the donor donates his sperm may be only three months (about nine or ten ejaculations).
Choosing donors
Donor information
In the US, sperm banks keep lists or catalogs of donors that provide basic information such as race origin, skin color, height, weight, eye color, and blood type. Some of these catalogs are available over the Internet, while others are only available to patients when they apply for treatment. Some sperm banks make additional information about each donor available at an additional cost, and others make additional basic information known to children generated from donors when the children reach the age of eighteen. Some clinics offer an "exclusive donor" whose sperm is only used to produce pregnancy for one recipient woman. How accurate or not, is unknown, and it is not known whether the information produced by the sperm bank, or by the donor itself, is true. However, many sperm banks will conduct checks to verify the requested information, such as checking the donor's identity and contacting his own physician to verify medical details. Just because such information can not be verified does not imply that it is inaccurate, and the sperm bank will rely on its reputation which, in turn, will be based on its success rate and on the accuracy of information about its available donors.
In the UK, most donors are anonymous at the point of donation and recipients can only see non-identification information about their donors (height, weight, ethnicity, etc.). Donors need to provide identifying information to clinics and clinics will usually ask GP from GP to confirm the medical details that have been given to them. Donors are required to provide their own portrait of a pen held by the HFEA and can be obtained by an adult conceived of a donation at the age of 16, along with identifying information such as the name of the donor and last known address at 18. Known donations are permitted and it is unusual to family or friends to donate to the recipient's partner.
The quality usually chosen by donor recipients is high donors, highly educated, and with high sperm counts. A review indicates that 68% of donors have provided clinical staff with information about physical characteristics and education but only 16% provide additional information such as talent and temperament or hereditary characters.
Other filtering criteria
Gay men who are sexually active are prohibited or discouraged from contributing in some countries, including the US. The bank's sperm also filtered out some potential donors based on height, baldness, and family medical history.
Number of offspring
When donors donate sperm through a sperm bank, the sperm bank will generally do some checks to ensure that the donor produces sperm with sufficient quantity and quality and that the donor is healthy and will not pass through the disease through the use of sperm. Donor sperm must also be resistant to the freezing and liquefaction processes necessary to store and quarantine sperm. The cost for the sperm bank for the test is quite large, which usually means that the clinic can use the same donor to produce a number of pregnancies in many women.
The number of children allowed from one donor varies by law and practice. This law is designed to protect children generated by sperm donors as well as children's natural donors from relatives in later life: they are not meant to protect donors themselves and those who donate sperm will realize that their donations can lead to multiple pregnancies in jurisdictions different. The law, if any, varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and the sperm bank may also apply its own limits. The latter will be based on a pregnancy report received by the sperm bank, although this depends on the accuracy of the return and the actual number of pregnancies may be somewhat higher. However, sperm banks often impose a lower threshold on the geographic number of some jurisdictions and may also limit the total number of pregnancies allowed from a single donor. Limitations on the number of children that sperm donors can cause are usually expressed in the term 'family', in the hope that children in the family are prohibited from sexual intercourse under the incest laws. Actually, the term family means "female" and usually includes a donor or ex-partner partner, so some donations for the same woman are not counted within limits. Limits usually apply in one jurisdiction, so that donor sperm can be used in other jurisdictions. There is no limit to the number of donations that can be made for the same woman.
There is no limit to the number of offspring that may result from private donors.
Although legislation limits the number of offspring, some donors can produce large numbers of children, especially where they donate through different clinics, where sperm are addressed or exported to different jurisdictions, and where countries or jurisdictions do not have a list of donor centers.
Sperm institutions, unlike sperm banks, rarely impose or impose limits on the number of children that may be produced by a single donor in part because they are not empowered to request a pregnancy report from the recipient and rarely, if ever, able to guarantee that a woman may have siblings next by a donor who was the biological father of his first or previous children.
Brothers
Where a woman wants to conceive an additional child with a sperm donor, she will often want to use the same donor. The advantage of having the next child by the same donor is that they will be full biological brothers, having the same biological father and mother. Many sperm banks offer sperm storage services for future pregnancies, but few will guarantee that sperm from the original donor will be available.
Sperm banks rarely impose limits on the number of siblings second or later. Even where there are limits on the use of sperm by certain donors for certain families (as in the UK) the actual number of children produced from each donor will often be much greater.
Donor payment
The majority of donors who donate through sperm banks receive some form of payment, although this is rarely a significant amount. A review including 29 studies from 9 countries found that the amount of money donors received varied from $ 10 to EUR70 per donation or sample. Payments vary from the situation in the UK where donors are only entitled to their expenses, to situations with some US sperm banks where donors receive a set fee for each donation plus an additional amount for each stored bottle. At one of California's leading sperm banks, for example, TSBC, donors receive about $ 50 for each donation that has an acceptable motility/survival rate both in donations and on a melt-test a few days later. Because of the requirements for the abstinence period two days before the donation, and the geographical factors that normally require donors to travel, it is not a viable way to earn significant income. Some private donors can ask for rewards even though others donate for altruistic reasons. According to EU Network Infect donors in the EU can only receive compensation, which is very limited to make good expenses and inconveniences associated with donations. A survey among sperm donors at Cryos International Sperm bank shows that altruistic and financial motives are a major factor for donors. However, when compensation increased 100% in 2004 (to DKK 500) it did not significantly affect the number of new donor candidates coming in or the frequency of donations from existing donors. When compensation was reduced to the previous level (DKK 250) again one year later in 2005 there was no good effect. This leads to the assumption that altruism is the primary motive and that financial compensation is secondary.
Tools for collecting, freezing and storing sperm are publicly available primarily through certain US outlets, and some donors process and store their own sperm which they then sell over the Internet.
The selling price of the sperm that is processed and stored is far more than the amount received by the donors. Treatment with sperm donors is generally expensive and rarely available for free through national health services. Sperm Banks often treat packages to eg three cycles, and in the case of IVF or other ART treatments, they can reduce costs if the patient donates the reserve embryo produced through treatment. There is often more demand for fertility treatment with donor sperm than there are available donor sperm, and this has the effect of keeping such treatment costs high enough.
Onselling
There is a market for sperm bottles that are processed and for various reasons the sperm bank may sell its stock of bottles (known as 'onselling'). Onselling allows the sperm bank to maximize the sales and disposal of sperm samples that have been processed. The reason for roaring may be where part of, or even the main business, a particular sperm bank is to process and store sperm rather than use it in fertility treatments, or where sperm banks are able to collect and store more sperm than can be used within a nationally defined limit. In the latter case, the sperm bank may sell sperm from a particular donor for use in other jurisdictions after the number of pregnancies achieved from the donor has reached its national maximum.
Psychological issues
Inform the child
Many do not tell children that they are conceived through sperm donations, or, when non-anonymous donor sperm have been used, they do not tell children until they are old enough for the clinic to provide contact information about the donor. Some people believe that it is a human right for a person to know who their mother and father are, and thus should be illegal to conceal this information in any way and at any time. For donor-conceived children who find out after a long period of confidentiality, their main sadness is usually not the fact that they are not the genetic children of the couple who have raised them but the fact that parents or parents have kept information from or lied to them, causing loss of trust.
There are certain circumstances in which the child is most likely to be told:
- When many families know about insemination, so the child may find it from someone else.
- When the adoptive father carries a significant genetic disease, frees the child from fear as a carrier.
Parental decision-making processes for children are influenced by many intrapersonal factors (such as self-confidence), interpersonal factors, and social and family life cycle factors. For example, health care staff and support groups have been shown to influence the decision to disclose the procedure. The exact age of the child when disclosure is most often given between 7 and 11 years.
Single mothers and lesbian couples are more likely to reveal from a young age. Children who are donated in a heterosexual family are more likely to find out about their disclosure from a third party.
Family share same donors
Having contacts and meetings among families who share the same donor generally has a positive effect. It gives the child a big family and helps give the child a sense of identity by answering questions about the donor. This is more common among open identities - families led by single men/women. Less than 1% of those looking for donor brothers find negative experiences, and in such cases most where parents disagree with each other about how the relationship should proceed.
Other family members
Parents of the donor, who is the grandparent of the donor offspring and can therefore be the oldest surviving ancestors, can regard the genetic contribution that is donated as a family asset, and may regard the donor as their grandchild.
A review found that a small percentage of donors actually involve their spouses in the decision making process to become donors. In one study, 25% of donors felt they needed permission from their partners. However, in another study, 37% of donors with partners did not approve the consent form for partners and felt that donors should make their own decisions. In a Swedish study, donors reported an enthusiastic or neutral response from their partners about sperm donations.
Mother-child relationship
Research shows that donor mothers inseminate show greater emotional involvement with their children, and they are more enjoying motherhood than mothers with natural conception and adoption. Compared to mothers with natural conceptions, donor insemination mothers tend to exhibit higher levels of disciplinary aggression.
Studies have indicated that donor insemination fathers express more warmth and emotional involvement than fathers with natural conceptions and adoption, more enjoying the role of fathers, and less involved in disciplining their adolescents. Some donor insemination parents become too involved with their children.
Teenagers born through sperm donations to lesbian mothers have reported themselves successfully academically, with an active network of friends, strong family ties, and overall high welfare rankings. It is estimated that over 80% of teenagers feel they can vent on their mothers, and almost all consider their mother as a good example.
Motivation vs. unwillingness to contribute
A systematic review yields the result that altruism and financial compensation are the main motivations to contribute, and to a lesser extent, genetic procreation or paternity and the question of donor fertility itself. Financial compensation is generally more common than altruism as a motivation among donors in countries where large compensation, largely explained by large numbers of economically driven people, becomes donors in these countries. Among the men who did not donate, the main reason has been expressed as a lack of motivation rather than concern about donations.
The reluctance to donate may be due to a sense of ownership and responsibility for the welfare of children.
Support for donors
In the UK, the National Gamete Donation Trust is a charity that provides information, advice, and support for people who want to donate eggs, sperm, or embryo. Trusts run national aid channels and online discussion lists for donors to talk to each other.
In one Danish study, 40% of donors were happy to think about the possibility of offspring, but 40% of donors sometimes worried about the future of the resulting offspring.
A review found out that one in three donors actually wanted counseling to address certain implications of their donations, hoping counseling could help them to make decisions and think of all the parties involved in donations.
A systematic review in 2012 came to the conclusion that the psychosocial needs and experiences of donors, and their follow-up and counseling were largely ignored in research on sperm donations.
Ethical and legal issues
Anonymity
Anonymous sperm donations occur under the condition that recipients and offspring will never learn the donor's identity. However, non-anonymous donors will disclose their identity to the recipient. Donors who make anonymous sperm donations are known donors, open identity donors, or identity-releasing donors.
The non-anonymous sperm donors, at a much higher level, are driven by altruistic motives for their contributions.
Even in the case of anonymous donations, some information about the donor may be released to the recipient at the time of treatment. Donor information is limited including height, weight, eyes, skin and hair color. In Sweden, this is the extent to which information is disclosed. In the US, however, additional information may be provided, such as comprehensive biographies and sound/video samples.
Some jurisdictions (eg, Sweden, Norway, Holland, England, Switzerland, Australia, and New Zealand, and others) allow only non-anonymous sperm donations. This is generally based on the principle that a child has the right to know its biological origins. In 2013, the German court precedent was set based on a case filed by a 21-year-old woman. Generally, these jurisdictions require sperm banks to keep recent records and to release identifiable information about donors to their offspring once they reach a certain age (15-18). View sperm donation laws by country.
Attitude to anonymity
For most sperm recipients, donor anonymity is not critical at the acquisition or trial stage. Anonymous sperm are often cheaper. Another reason why recipients choose anonymous donors is a concern about the role of donors or children who may want donors to play in the lives of children. Sperm recipients may choose non-anonymous donors if they anticipate expressing the donor's conception to their child and anticipate the child's desire to seek further information about their donors in the future. A study in the Netherlands found that lesbian couples were significantly more likely (98%) to choose non-anonymous donors than heterosexual couples (63%). Of heterosexual couples who choose anonymous donations, 83% are meant never to tell their children about their concepts through sperm donations.
For children conceived by anonymous donors, the impossibility of contacting a biological father or the inability to find information about him can potentially burden psychologically. One study estimated that about 67% of teenage donors contain children with an identity-releasing donor plan to contact him when they are 18.
Among potential donors and donors
Among donors, a systematic review of 29 studies from nine countries concluded that 20-50% of donors would still be willing to contribute even if anonymity can not be guaranteed. Between 40 and 97% of donors agree to release non-identification information such as physical characteristics and level of education. The proportion of donors who actually want contact with their offspring varies between 10 and 88%. Most donors are not open to contact with offspring, although more open attitudes are observed between single and homosexual donors. About half of the donors feel that the level of involvement should be decided by the intended parent. Some donors prefer contact with offspring in an invisible way, such as where a child can ask a question but the donor will not reveal his identity. One study recruited donors through the Donor Sibling Registry who wanted contact with offspring or who had been in contact with the offspring. The result is that no donor says that "there is no relationship", one-third of donors feel it is a special relationship, almost like a very good friend, and one quarter feel it's just a genetic bond and nothing more. Fifteen percent of donors actually regard children as "their own children". Overall, donors feel that the first step toward contact should come from the offspring rather than the parent or the donor itself. Some even say that it is the moral responsibility of donors not to seek contact with offspring.
The same review shows that up to 37% of donors report a change in their attitude to anonymity before and after the donation, with one in four ready to be more open about themselves after donations than before (as "potential donors"). Among potential donors, 30-46% of potential donors are still willing to contribute even if anonymity can not be guaranteed. However, over 75% of these potential donors feel positive about releasing non-identification information to offspring, such as physical characteristics and educational levels. Single men or homosexuals are significantly more likely to release their identity than married and heterosexual men. Potential donors with children tend to be less likely to meet children from potential donors without children (9 versus 30% in review). Potential donors in a relationship are less likely to consider contact with offspring than a single potential donor (7 versus 28% in review). From the US data, 20% are actively curious and fulfill the offspring and 40% will not mind if the child wants to meet but will not ask for the meeting itself. From Swedish data, where only non-anonymous donations are allowed in the clinic, 87% of potential donors have a positive attitude toward future contact with offspring, although 80% of these potential donors do not feel that donors have a moral responsibility for the child. at a later time. Also from British data, 80% of potential donors do not feel responsible for anything that happens with their sperm after the donation. With variations between different studies, between 33% and 94% of potential donors want to know at least whether donations produce offspring. Some of these potential donors only want to know whether the pregnancy has been achieved but do not want to know specific information about the offspring (eg gender, date of birth). Other potential donors feel that knowing the outcome of the donation makes the experience more meaningful. In comparison, a study in Germany found that 11% of donors actually asked about the results at the clinic where they contributed.
A study in Australia concluded that potential donors who are still willing to donate without anonymity guarantee are not automatically more open to extended or intimate contact with their offspring.
Donation tracking
Even when donors choose to be anonymous, children may still find ways to learn more about their biological origins. Registry and DNA database have been developed for this purpose. The registry that helps a donor child identify a stepbrother with another mother also helps avoid accidental incest in adulthood.
Tracking by registry
Anonymous donor offspring may often have the ability to get their biological father donor number from a fertility clinic or a sperm bank used for their birth. They can then divide their numbers in the registry. By finding the distributed donor numbers, the offspring can find their genetic stepbrothers. Donors can also find the number in the registry and choose to make contact with their offspring or reveal their identity.
Tracking based on DNA database
Even sperm donors who have chosen anonymity and have not contacted their offspring through the registry are now increasingly being tracked by their children. Improved DNA technology has questioned the possibility of ensuring the anonymity of donors. For example, at least one child discovers his biological father using DNA testing and his own internet research, and is able to identify and contact his anonymous donor.
Tourism fertility and international sperm market
Different factors motivate individuals to seek sperm from outside their home country. For example, some jurisdictions do not allow unmarried women to receive donor sperm. The choice of regulatory jurisdiction as well as cultural factors that hinder sperm donations have also led to international fertility tourism and sperm markets.
Swedish
When Sweden banned anonymous sperm donations in 1980, the number of active sperm donors fell from about 200 to 30. Sweden now has an 18-month waiting list for donor sperm. At least 250 Swedish sperm recipients travel to Denmark each year for insemination. Some of this is also due to the fact that Denmark also allows single women to be inseminated.
United Kingdom
After the United Kingdom ended anonymous sperm donations in 2005, the number of sperm donors increased, reversing a three-year drop. However, there are still shortcomings, and some doctors recommend raising the child borders per donor. Several British clinics import sperm from Scandinavia.
Despite the shortcomings, sperm exports from the UK are legal and donors can remain anonymous in this context. However, HFEA does not impose safeguards on sperm exports, as it should be exported to fertility clinics only and that the results of each treatment should be traceable. Sperm banks impose their own limits on the amount of pregnancy obtained from the sperm being exported.
Since 2009, sperm imports through registered clinics for use in the UK have been endorsed by HFEA. Sperm must have been processed, stored, and quarantined in accordance with UK regulations. Donors have agreed to be identified when the children produced with their sperm reach the age of eighteen. The number of children generated from such donors in the UK will, of course, be subject to the HFEA rules (ie currently the limit of ten families,) but donor sperm can be used worldwide according to the clinic's own limits of one child per 200,000 population, subject to applicable national or local limits. In 2014, the UK imports almost 40% of sperm needs, up from 10% in 2005.
Korean
Korean Bioethics laws prohibit the sale and purchase of sperm among clinics, and each donor can only help bring a child to one partner. It suffers from lack.
Canada
Canada prohibits payments for gamete donations beyond reimbursement of expenses. Many Canadians import sperm purchased from the United States.
United States
The United States, which allows monetary compensation for sperm donors, has seen an increase in sperm donors during the late 2000s.
Social controversy
The use of sperm donations is most common among single women and lesbians. Some sperm banks and fertility clinics, especially in the US, Denmark and the UK, have a predominance of women treated with donor sperm that come in these groups. This generates many ethical issues surrounding conventional care goals and has broader problems for society as a whole, including issues of male roles as parents, family support for children, and financial support for women with children.
The growth of sperm banks and fertility clinics, the use of sperm agents and the availability of anonymous donor sperm have served to make sperm donors a more respectable procedure, and therefore more socially acceptable. The intervention of physicians and others can be seen as making the whole process respectable and only medical procedures that do not pose a moral problem, where donor insemination can be referred to as' treatment 'and donor children as' a result of the use of sperm donors', or' after donations' and subsequent children can be described as' born using the same donor 'rather than as a biological child of the same male.
A 2009 study showed that both men and women saw the use of donor sperm with more skepticism than donor egg use, suggesting a unique underlying perception of the use of male donor gametes.
Since the acceptance of sperm donations generally increases, so does the level of questions about whether 'artificial' conceptions are needed, and some donor children, too, have been critical of the procedures taken to bring them to the world. Against this background there has been an increase in the use of NI as a sperm donor method. However, while some donors may be willing to offer this as a method of conception, it has many critics and also poses further legal and social challenges.
Some donor children grow up hoping to find out who their father is, but others may be wary of starting such searches because they fear they may find a number of half-sisters who have been generated from the same sperm donor. Although local laws or regulations may limit the number of offspring from a single donor, there are no restrictions or controls around the world and most sperm banks will sell more and export all the remaining vial reserves of sperm when the local maxima has been obtained (see 'offer' on).
One of the research items has suggested that donor children have a greater likelihood of substance abuse, mental illness and criminal behavior when it grows. However, his motivation and credibility are questioned.
Coming to the public with problems is difficult for people who donors contain because these issues are very personal and public statements can attract criticism. In addition, it may upset their parents if they talk. A website named Anonymous Us has been set up where they can post details of their experience anonymously, where there are many problem accounts.
Religious response
There are various religious responses to sperm donations, with some religious thinkers fully supporting the use of donor sperm for pregnancy, some of which support their use under certain conditions, and some are completely opposed.
Catholicism
Catholics are officially opposed to both sperm donations and the use of donor sperm on the grounds that it endangers the sexual union of marital relationships and the idea "that the procreation of a human being is brought as the fruit of a special husband-wife action for love between couples."
Judaism
Jewish thinkers hold various positions in sperm donors. Some Jewish communities actually oppose sperm donations from donors who are not recipient husbands, while others have agreed to the use of donor insemination in some form, while liberal societies fully accept it.
Protestantism
The Southern Baptist Convention states that sperm donations from third parties violate marital ties.
History
In 1884, Professor William Pancoast of Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia conducted an insemination on the wife of a sterile Quaker merchant, who was probably the first insemination procedure that produced the birth of a child. Instead of taking the sperm from her husband, the professor chloroformed the woman, then let the medical students choose one of them "the most handsome", with the chosen one providing sperm which is then sprayed onto her cervix. At the request of the husband, his wife was never told how she was pregnant. As a result of this experiment, the merchant's wife gave birth to a son, who became the first known child through donor insemination. The case was not revealed until 1909, when a letter by Addison Davis Hard appeared in the American Medical Medical journal, highlighting the procedure.
Since then, some doctors have begun to conduct private donor insemination. Such procedures are considered very private, if not confidential, by the parties involved. Records are usually not maintained so that donors can not be identified for the paternity process. Technology allows the use of fresh sperm only, and it is estimated that sperm mostly come from their doctors and male staff, although sometimes they will involve private donors who are able to donate in a short time on a regular basis.
In 1945, Mary Barton and others published an article in the British Medical Journal about sperm donations. Barton, a gynecologist, founded a clinic in London that offers artificial insemination using donor sperm for women whose husbands are infertile. The clinic helps pregnant 1,500 babies where Mary Barton's husband, Bertold Weisner, may be a father of about 600.
The first successful human pregnancy to use frozen sperm in 1953.
Insemination donors remained virtually unknown to the public until 1954. In that year the first comprehensive account of this process was published in The British Medical Journal.
Insemination donors provoke a heated public debate. In England, Archbishop Canterbury founded the first in a long commission procession that, for years, investigated the practice. It was initially condemned by the Lambeth Conference, which recommended that it be a criminal offense. A Parliamentary Commission agrees. In Italy, the Pope declared donor insemination a sin, and suggested that anyone using the procedure be sent to prison.
Sperm donations gained popularity in the 1980s and 1990s.
In many western countries, sperm donations are now widely accepted procedures. In the US and elsewhere, there are many sperm banks. A sperm bank in the US pioneered the use of an online search catalog for donor sperm, and the facility is now widely available on the websites of sperm banks and fertility clinics.
Recent years have also seen sperm donations become relatively less popular among heterosexual couples, who now have access to more advanced fertility treatments, and are more popular among single women and lesbian couples - whose access to this procedure is relatively new and still prohibited in some jurisdictions.
United States
In 1954, High Court of Cook County, Illinois gave the husband a divorce because, regardless of husband's consent, the insemination of a female donor was adultery, and donor insemination "contrary to good public and moral policy, and considered adultery in the mother's part." saying, "A child conceived is born out of wedlock and therefore invalid, so it is the child of the mother, and the father has no right or interest in the child's word."
However, the following year, Georgia became the first state to pass legislation legitimating children conceived by donor insemination, provided that both husband and wife agreed in advance to the procedure.
In 1973, the Commissioners on Uniform State Law, and a year later, the American Bar Association, approved the Uniform Brotherhood Act. This action establishes that if a wife is artistically inseminated with donor semen under the supervision of a physician, and with the consent of her husband, the husband is legally considered to be the natural father of the donor's insemination boy. The law is followed by similar laws in many ne
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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