The Juris Doctor ( JD or JD ), also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence ( JD , JD , D.Jur. or DJur ), is a graduate degree in law and one of several Doctor of Laws. This is obtained by completing law schools in Australia, Canada and the United States, and several other common law countries. Has an academic standing of a professional doctorate in the United States, a master's degree in Australia, and a second-year bachelor's degree in Canada, (in the same jurisdictions as other professional titles such as MD or DDS, a degree is required to become a practicing dentist or physician, respectively).
The title was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was made as a modern version of the old European legal doctorate (such as Dottore di Giurisprudenza in Italy and Juris Utriusque Doctor in Germany and Central Europe). Coming from the 19th century Harvard movement to the scientific study of law, it is a degree that in most jurisdictions the general law is the primary professional preparation for lawyers. This involves a three-year program in most jurisdictions.
In order to be permitted to practice law in certain state courts in the United States, the majority of individuals holding a J.D. must pass the test. The state of Wisconsin, however, allows graduates from two law schools to practice law in the country, and in state courts, without having to take the test - a practice called "diploma privileges" - provided they complete the necessary courses to fulfill the right requirements special diploma. In the United States, passing additional exams does not require lawyers authorized to practice in at least one state to practice in US national courts, a court known as a "federal court". Lawyers must, however, be admitted to a federal court bar before they are authorized to practice in that court. Entrance to the federal district court bar includes entry to the bar of the related bankruptcy court.
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Etimologi dan singkatan
In the United States, professional law doctors may be awarded in Latin or in English as Juris Doctor (sometimes displayed in Latin diplomas in the accusative form of Juris Doctorem) and on some law school Doctor of Law (JD or JD), or Doctor of Law Science (also abbreviated JD or JD). "Juris Doctor" literally means "Teacher of Law", while Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence" - Jurisprudentiae Doctor - literally means "Teacher of Law Science".
J.D. not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD or LL.D.). In the institution where the latter can be obtained, e.g. Cambridge University (where he is awarded the Doctor of Law degree, while still maintaining the abbreviation of LLD) and many other British institutions, it is a higher research doctor who represents substantial contributions to this field over the years, beyond that required for PhDs and far beyond the taught degree such as JD The LL.D. always an honorary degree in the United States.
Maps Juris Doctor
Historical context
The origin of the legal title
The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a law school by four famous law scholars in the 11th century who were students of the city's interpreter school. It served as a model for other law schools in the Middle Ages, and other early universities such as the University of Padua. The first academic degree may be a doctorate in civil law ( doctores legume ) followed by canon law ( doctores decretorum ); this is not a professional degree but rather indicates that their holder has been approved to teach at the university. While Bologna was only awarded a doctorate, the degree of preparation (graduate and licensure) was introduced in Paris and later in British universities.
History of legal training in the UK
The nature of J.D. can be better understood by reviewing the context of the history of legal education in the UK. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford University is primarily for philosophical or scientific purposes and is not intended to prepare a person to practice law. The University only teaches civil law and canon law (used in very few jurisdictions such as admiralty courts and church courts) but is not a general law applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training to practice common law in the UK was conducted at Inns of Court, but over time, the training function of the inn was significantly reduced and the apprenticeship with individual practitioners emerged as a prominent preparatory medium. However, due to the lack of standardized study and objective standards for appraisal, the role of the university becomes important for the education of lawyers in the English-speaking world.
In England in 1292 when Edward first asked lawyers to be trained, the students just sat in court and watched, but over time the students would hire professionals to give lectures to them in their homes, which led to the institution of the District Court system. The original method of education at the Court Inn is a mixture of practices and lectures such as courts, as well as observations of litigation. In the fifteenth century, the inn functioned like a university resembling the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, albeit highly specialized. With often no suitable parties during the Crusades, the importance of the role of lawyers grew enormously, and the demand for lawyers grew.
Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge do not see common law as a viable study, and include courses in law only in the context of canons and civil law (two 'Laws' in the original Bachelor of Laws, thus becoming a Civil Law Degree when a study of canon law is prohibited after Reform) and for the purposes of philosophical or historical studies only. The apprenticeship program for lawyers appears, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship program for commerce. The training of a lawyer by a five-year apprentice was formally established by Lawyers and Lawyers Act 1728,. William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English general law at Oxford University in 1753, but the university did not set a program for professional study purposes, and his lectures were highly philosophical and theoretical. Blackstone insists that legal studies should be university-based, where concentrations on basic principles can be had, not concentration on detail and procedures through apprenticeship and Lodging Court.
The act of 1728 was amended in 1821 to reduce the period of apprenticeship required by up to three years for graduates either in Law or Art from Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin, as "the acceptance of such graduates should be facilitated, with consideration of learning and ability required to take such a degree ". It was extended in 1837 to include newly established Durham and London universities, and again in 1851 to include the new Queen of Ireland University.
The Court lodge continues but becomes less effective, and getting into the bar still does not require significant educational activities or checks. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective lawyers and found that the system was inferior to Europe and the United States because Britain did not regulate lawyers' recognition. Therefore, formal law schools are requested, but not finally established until the end of this century, and even then the bar does not consider the university degree in the admission decision.
Until the mid-nineteenth century, most of the law degree in England (BCL in Oxford and Durham, and LLB in London) was a postgraduate degree, taken after an early degree in Art. The Cambridge degree, known as BCL, BL or LLB, is an exception: it takes 6 years from the matriculation to be completed, but only three must be resident, and BA is not required (although they do not hold it BA must produce a certificate to prove that they not just living in a dorm but actually attending lectures for at least three terms). These titles are specialized in Roman Civil Law rather than the Common Law of English, which is the domain of the Court Inn, and thus more theoretical than practically useful. Cambridge reestablished an LLB degree in 1858 as a joint undergraduate program with BA, and LLB London, which previously required at least one year after BA, became a bachelor's degree in 1866. The older nomenclature continues to be used for BCL at Oxford today, master, while Cambridge moved his LLB back into a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as LLM in 1982.
Between the 1960s and 1990s, UK law schools took a more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently increased their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant. During the same period, American law schools became more scientific and less professional-oriented, so in 1996 Langbein could write: "The difference between British law schools as temple scholarships and American legal schools as training centers for the profession is no longer bear the most remote, the connection with reality. "
Legal training in 19th century North American and US colonial law.
Initially there was a lot of resistance to North American colonial lawyers for the role they played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial government began using the services of professionals trained at Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the American Revolution there was a functional bar in every country part. Due to the initial distrust of a profession that is open only to the elite in the UK, as institutions for training developed in what will become the United States they appear as very different from those in the UK.
Initially in the United States legal professionals were trained and imported from the UK. An apprentice program or official position was first established in New York in 1730 - at that time a seven-year clergymanship was required, and in 1756 a four-year bachelor's degree was required in addition to five years of recruitment and examination. Then the requirements are reduced to require only two years of college education. But systems like the inn did not grow, and college education was not needed in England until the 19th century, so the system was unique.
The scribe program requires a lot of individual study and counsel lawyers are expected to carefully select the material to be studied and guide the clerk in his legal studies and ensure that it is being absorbed. The student should have compiled his notes about his reading of the law into a "regular book," which he will try to memorize. Although it is an ideal, in reality the clerks are often overworked and rarely able to learn the law individually as expected. They are often employed for boring tasks, such as making copies of handwritten documents. Finding adequate legal texts is also a very crippling problem, and there is no standardization in the books assigned to trainees as they are assigned by their mentors whose opinions on the law may be very different from their peers. It was said by a famous lawyer in the US, William Livingston, in 1745 in the New York newspaper that the scribe's program was very flawed, and that most mentors "have no concern for the future welfare of their clerks... [T] is a very absurdity it is terrible to conclude, that the law must be learned by copying a timeless precedent. "There were several dedicated mentors for the service, and because of their scarcity they became highly sought after that first law school evolved from the offices of some of these lawyers who took many employees and began to spend more training time than practicing law.
In due course, apprenticeship programs are not considered sufficient to produce lawyers who are fully capable of serving the needs of their clients. The internship program often employs participants with rough tasks, and while they are trained in day-to-day operations of the law office, they are generally practitioners who are not ready or legal instincts. The establishment of a formal law faculty at a US university did not occur until the later part of the 18th century. With the start of the American Revolution, the supply of British lawyers came to an end. The first law degree awarded by a US university was the Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary, abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use LL.B. abbreviation in the United States.
The first university law programs in the United States, such as the University of Maryland founded in 1812, cover many theoretical and philosophical studies, including works such as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca, Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu, and Grotius. It has been said that the early university law schools at the beginning of the 19th century seemed to prepare students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers. At LL.B. programs in the early 1900s at Stanford and Yale Universities continued to include "cultural studies", which included courses in language, math and economics. LL.B., or Bachelor of Laws, admits that a prior bachelor's degree is not required to earn an LL degree. B.
In the 1850s there were many exclusive schools coming from a practitioner who took several internships and established schools and who provided practical law education, compared to those offered at universities that offer education in theory, history and legal philosophy. Universities assume that skills acquisition will occur in practice, while exclusive schools concentrate on practical skills during education.
Revolutionary approach: Scientific study of the law
As part of competing with small professional law schools, major changes in US university law education are taking place. For a short time starting in 1826, Yale began offering a complete "practitioner course" that lasted two years and included practical courses, such as requesting a draft. US Supreme Court Judge Joseph Story began the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard when he advocated more "scientific studies" about law in the 19th century. At that time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore, at Harvard, education is far from the type of school trading approach to legal education, contrary to the liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson in William and Mary. Nevertheless, there is still debate among educators about whether legal education should be more vocational, as in private law schools, or through strict scientific methods, as developed by Story and Langdell. In the words of Dorsey Ellis, "Langdell sees law as a science and law library as a laboratory, with cases that provide a basis for studying 'principles or doctrines' which law, which is considered a science, comprises. ' "However, until 1900 most states did not require university education (although internships were often required) and most practitioners did not attend law school or college.
Therefore, the modern legal education system in the US is a combination of law teaching as a science and practical skill, applying elements such as clinical training, which have become an important part of legal education in the US and in JD study programs.
Creation of J.D. and the main general legal approach to legal education
J.D. came from the United States during the movement to improve professional training. Prior to the start of J.D., law students started law school either with only a high school diploma, or less than the number of undergraduate studies required to obtain a bachelor's degree. LL.B. lasted until the middle of the twentieth century, after which a completed bachelor degree became a requirement for almost all students entering law school. The resulting didactic approach is revolutionary for university education and has been slowly being implemented outside the US, but only recently (since about 1997) and gradually. The resulting degree of this new approach, such as M.D. and J.D., are just as different from their European counterparts because the educational approach is different.
Legal education in the United States
Professional doctors were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being Doctor of Medicine in 1807, but a professional law degree requires more time. At that time the legal system in the United States was still in development when educational institutions were developing. The status of the legal profession at the time was still ambiguous; Therefore, the development of a law degree takes a lot of time. Even when some universities offer legal training, they do not offer a degree. Because in the United States there is no Court Lodging, and the British academic degree does not provide the necessary professional training, the UK model is not applicable, and the degree program takes time to develop. At first the degree took the form of B.L. (as in the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, interested in importing legitimacy through Oxford and Cambridge traps, applied LL.B. degree. This was somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any cultural or classical studies required from a degree in England, where it was necessary to obtain a general BA before LLB or BCL until the nineteenth century. So, despite the English name LL.B. The degree is implemented at Harvard, the program in the US is still intended as the first degree which, unlike English B.A., provides practical or professional training in the field of law.
Juris Doctor Creation
In the mid-19th century there were many concerns about the quality of legal education in the United States. Christopher Columbus Langdell, who served as dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895, devoted his life to reforming legal education in the United States. Historian Robert Stevens writes that "it was Langdell's goal to turn the legal profession into an educated university - and not at the undergraduate level, but through a bachelor 's three - year post - graduate degree. This postgraduate study will enable intensive legal training developed by Langdell, known as the case method (the method of studying landmark cases) and the Socratic method (a method for testing students about the reasons for the courts in the cases studied). Therefore, a proposed high degree law degree, Juris Doctor, applies the case and method of Socrates as his didactic approach. According to professor J. H. Beale, a Harvard Law graduate of 1882, one of the main arguments for change is uniformity. Four Harvard professional schools in Theology, Law, Medicine, and Arts and Science are all graduates of the school, and therefore their degree is a second degree. Two of them were awarded doctoral degrees and two other baccalaureate degrees. Changes from LL.B. to J.D. intended to end "this discrimination, the practice of giving what is usually first-rate in people who already have a major degree". J.D. proposed as equivalent to J.U.D. in Germany to reflect the advanced study needed to be an effective lawyer.
The University of Chicago Law School is the first to offer a J.D. While approvals are pending at Harvard, degrees are being introduced at many other law schools including law schools in NYU, Berkeley, Michigan and Stanford. Due to tradition, and worries about the less prominent universities implementing the JD program, the leading eastern law schools such as Harvard, Yale and Columbia refused to apply the degree. Indeed, the pressure of those leading almost every law school (except at the University of Chicago and other law schools in Illinois) to leave J.D. and readopt the LL.B. as his first law degree in the 1930s.
It was not until 1962 that a new impetus - this time starting in the lesser-known law schools - managed to encourage universal adoption of J.D. as the first law degree. Student and alumni support is key in LL.B.-to-J.D. changed, and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make a change: Columbia and Harvard in 1969, and Yale, lastly, in 1971. Nevertheless, LL.B. at Yale maintained a didactic change of "practitioner courses" in 1826 and was very different from LL.B. in common law countries other than Canada.
Adhering to the standards of modern academic practice, Harvard Law School refers to the Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science as a postgraduate degree. Similarly, Columbia refers to LL.M. and J.S.D. as a postgraduate program. Yale Law School enrolls LL.M., M.S.L., J.S.D., and Ph.D. as it is a postgraduate program. A difference persists between professional and undergraduate degrees in the United States.
Major general legal approach
The British legal system is at the root of the system of other common law countries, such as the United States. Initially, public lawyers in Britain were trained exclusively at Inns of Court. Although it took almost 150 years since general law education began with Blackstone in Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, LL.B. eventually becoming the usual degree taken before becoming a lawyer. In England and Wales, LL.B. is an undergraduate degree program and although (assuming it is an eligible law degree) it meets the academic requirements to become a lawyer, further professional and vocational training as one of the attorneys (Professional Bar Training Course followed by Pupillage) or as a lawyer (Law Practice Course followed by a "recognized training period") is required before it becomes licensed in that jurisdiction. The law degree of qualification in most UK universities is LLB although in some, including Oxford and Cambridge, it is BA in Law. Both can be taken with "senior status" in two years by those who already hold a bachelor's degree in another discipline. Some universities offer "liberating" degrees, usually a master's degree integrated with the Master of Law (MLaw), which combines a qualification law degree with a law practice course or a professional bar training course in four years, an undergraduate program.
Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other Commonwealth countries. Although Canada's legal system is largely a transplant of the British system (excluded by Quebec), the Canadian system is unique in that there is no Court of Inns, practical training takes place in the offices of an attorney and lawyer with membership of the legal community, and, since 1889, the university degree has become a prerequisite for start an articulating committee. Education in law schools in Canada is similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century, but with greater concentration on the preparation and interpretation of laws, and elements of liberal education. Bar associations in Canada are influenced by changes at Harvard, and sometimes faster to nationally implement proposed changes in the United States, such as requiring prior college education before studying the law.
Variants and modern curriculum
Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the jurisdictional legal system in which education is provided, therefore the degree of law differs greatly from country to country, making comparisons between degrees of problem. This is proven true in the context of various JD forms that have been implemented around the world.
Until about 1997, JD was unique to law schools in the US. But with the growing international success of law firms from the United States, and the rise of overseas students attending US law schools, lawyers with JD have become increasingly common. internationally. Therefore, JD prestige has also increased, and many universities outside the US have begun to offer J.D., often with the aim of improving the prestige of law schools and their graduates. Such institutions usually aim to match title names, and sometimes the new JD course is the same as their traditional law degree, which is usually more scientific than the professional training intended with JD as created in the US Various characteristics can be seen among JD degrees as applied in universities around the world.
Types and characteristics
Until recently, only law schools in the United States were offering the Juris Doctor . Beginning around 1997, universities in other countries began to introduce J.D. as the first professional degree in law, with a distinction that is appropriate to the legal system of the countries in which these law schools are located.
Standard Doctor Jurisic Curriculum
As stated by James Hall and Christopher Langdell, the two people involved in the creation of JD, JD are professional titles such as the MD, which are intended to prepare practitioners through a scientific approach of analyzing and teaching law through logic and hostile analysis (such as Casebook and Socrates methods). It's been there as described in the United States for over 100 years, and can therefore be called a standard or traditional JD program. JD programs generally require a bachelor's degree to enter, although these requirements are sometimes ignored. The study program for the degree has remained substantially unchanged since its formation, and is an intensive study of substantive law and its professional application (and therefore does not require a thesis, although long writing projects are sometimes necessary). As a professional training, this training provides sufficient training to begin practicing (no need for an internship to take the bar exam). This requires at least three full-time academic years of study. While J.D. is a doctorate in the US, lawyers usually use the "esquire" suffix as opposed to the prefix "Dr." Although calling an American lawyer "doctor" will not be wrong, as long as the lawyer has a JD or other doctorate (as opposed to LL.B., which is a baccalaeureate, not a doctorate), this title is more commonly used in Europe and Asia than in the US or Canada.
Replacement for LL.B.
Initial attempt to rename LL.B. to JD in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century began with a petition at Harvard in 1902. This was rejected, but the idea was held in a new law school established at the University of Chicago and other universities and in 1925 80% of the US. law schools provide JDs for migrant graduates, while limiting undergraduate entrants (who follow the same curriculum) to LL.B. But the change was rejected by Harvard, Yale and Columbia, and in the late 1920s the school moved away from J.D. and again only gives LL.B, with only Illinois law schools surviving. This changed in the 1960s, where almost all graduate law schools are graduates. JD was reintroduced in 1962 and in 1971 has replaced LL.B., again without any change in the curriculum, with many schools going so far as to offer J.D. to LL.B. alumni for a small fee.
Universities in Canada and Australia have legal programs that are very similar to J.D. in the United States. These include Queen's University, University of British Columbia, University of Alberta, University of Victoria, Università © de Moncton, University of Calgary, University of Saskatchewan, University of Manitoba, University of Windsor, University of Ottawa, University of Western Ontario, University of York and University of Toronto in Canada, RMIT and University of Melbourne in Australia. Therefore, when JD programs are introduced in these institutions, it simply changes the name of their second entry LL.B. program and requires no significant substantive changes to their curriculum. The reason given for doing so is due to the popularity and international recognition of J.D., and the need to recognize the demanding characteristics of graduates of the program. Because these programs are in institutions that are heavily influenced by them in the UK, the J.D. often have some small scientific elements (see chart above, titled "Comparison of J.D. Variance"). And since the legal system is also influenced by the UK, an internship is still required before it is eligible to apply for a license to practice (see the section below, under "JD Descriptions outside the US").
Description of J.D. outside the US.
Australia
Generally, universities offering JD also offer LLB, although in some universities, only JD is offered, and only at the graduate level. Due to recent changes in the arrangement of a bachelor's degree, some universities, such as the University of Melbourne, only allow the law to be studied at the graduate level, and JD has completely replaced LLB.
An Australian Doctoral Juris consists of three years of full-time study, or equivalent. This course varies across universities, although all are required to teach Priestley 11 courses if they wish their students can practice law in Australia. As with LLB graduates, JD graduates need to complete the requirements of practical law training (PLT) before they are eligible for acceptance of practice. Some universities, such as the University of Technology, Sydney, have begun to offer PLT as part of the JD, although this is not unusual, since PLT is most often done in early work.
In the Australian Qualification Framework, Juris Doctor is classified as "Master Degree (Extended)", with the exception of being awarded for the Juris Doctor degree (other exceptions including Doctor of Medicine, Dentist and Veterinary Doctor). It may not be described as a doctorate, and the holder may not use the title "Doctor". Along with other extended master's degrees, JD takes 3-4 years after a minimum of a 3 year bachelor's degree.
Canada
J.D. Degree is the dominant legal law title in Canada, replacing LL.B. traditional. a leading degree in Commonwealth countries. The University of Toronto became the first to change the name of its law degree from LL.B. for JD in 2001. As well as the second entry of LL.B., to be accepted into the Juris Doctor program, applicants must complete a minimum of 2 or 3 years of study toward a bachelor's degree and score high in North Korea. Entrance Test American School of Law. As a practical matter, almost all successful applicants have completed one or more degrees prior to entering the Canadian common law school, although although this, along with other first professional titles, is considered a bachelor degree qualification. All Canadian Juris Doctor programs are three years old, and have similar content in their first year compulsory courses. The first-year compulsory courses in Canadian law schools outside Quebec include public law (ie provincial law, constitutional law, and administrative law), property law, lawsuit law, contract law, criminal law, and research and legal writing. Beyond the first year and other programs required for graduation, selection courses are elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural resource law, real estate transactions, employment law, criminal law, and Aboriginal law. After graduating from an accredited law school, the legal community of each province or region requires completion of a bar exam course or examination, and a supervised "supervisory" period prior to independent practice.
Use of "J.D." appointment by Canadian law schools is not intended to show an emphasis on American law, but rather to distinguish the degree of Canadian law from British law degrees, which requires no previous undergraduate studies. JD Canada is a degree in Canadian Law. Accordingly, the jurisdiction of the United States other than New York and Massachusetts does not recognize the title of the Canadian Doctor Juris automatically. This is equivalent to the way in which JD graduates of the United States are treated in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario. To prepare graduates to practice in jurisdictions on both sides of the border, several pairs of law schools, such as New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School, University of Ottawa Law School and Michigan State University Law School or American University; Windsor Law School and the University of Detroit Mercy Law School, have developed JD's American-Canadian joint program.
The two main exemptions are the Università © de MontrÃÆ' © al and Università © de Sherbrooke, both of which offer a one-year JDR program aimed at Quebec civil law graduates to practice law elsewhere in Canada or in New York state.
York University offers Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.) As a research degree until 2002, when the program name was changed to a Ph.D. in law.
China
J.D.s is generally not provided in the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.). Conversely, J.M. (Juris Master's Degree) is awarded as a partner of JD in the United States, a professional degree in law in China. The main legal degree in P.R.C. is a law degree. In the fall of 2008 the Shenzhen campus of Peking University initiated the Transnational Law School, which offers a U.S. style education. and awarded both Chinese master's degrees and, with special authorization from the government, J.D.
Hong Kong
The current JD degree is offered at The Chinese University of Hong Kong, The University of Hong Kong, and City University of Hong Kong. This degree is known as ???? in Chinese, and in Cantonese pronounced Faat Leot Bok Si . J.D. in Hong Kong is almost identical to LL.B. and provided for non-legal disciplinary graduates, but J.D. is considered a postgraduate degree and requires a thesis or dissertation. Like LL.B. there is a lot of scientific content in the required courses. Although the university that offers the title claims that J.D. is a two-year program, completing a degree in two years will require study over the summer. JD is, in spite of its title, considered a master's degree by the university offering it in Hong Kong, and is positioned at the masters level in the Hong Kong Qualifications Framework. Good LL.B. or J.D. does not provide sufficient education for licensing to practice, as graduates of both are also required to undertake a PCLL course and solicitor training or a barrister student.
Italy
There is no university in Italy that provides a Juris Doctorate degree, nor is there a plan to apply a degree. However, the law degree in Italy is longer (5 years of college) than the standard degree program, and lawyers in Italy often use the title of "doctor" (Italian law authorizes all university graduates, including those from undergraduate programs, to use a doctorate degree ).
Japanese
In Japan, JD is known as Homu Hakushi (????). This program generally lasts for three years. JD's two-year program for applicants with legal knowledge (especially holders of undergraduate degree) is also offered. The curriculum is professionally oriented, but it does not provide sufficient education for licensed to practice as a lawyer in Japan, as all candidates for licensure must have 12 months practical training by the Institute for Training and Legal Research after passing the exam. Similarly for the US, Juris Doctor is classified as a "Professional Degrees" (???) in Japan, which is separate from the graduate and post-graduate "doctoral" academic rankings.
Mexico
To become a licensed lawyer, one must hold a Licenciado en Derecho degree that can be obtained with four to five years of academic and final examinations. After this undergraduate study it is possible to earn a MaestrÃÆ'A degree, equivalent to a master's degree. This degree requires two to three years of academic study. Finally, one can study for three additional years to earn Doctor en Derecho, which is a research degree at the doctoral level. Since most universities and law schools must receive approval from the Ministry of Education (SecretarÃÆ'a de EducaciÃÆ'³n PÃÆ'ºblica) through the general profession office (Dirección General de Profesiones) all similar academic programs across the country in public and private law schools.
Philippines
In the Philippines, J.D. is with LL.B. which is more common. Like the LL.B standard, it takes four years of study, regarded as a bachelor's degree and requires an earlier undergraduate study as a prerequisite for admission, and covers the core subjects required for the bar exam. However, J.D requires students to complete core subjects in just 2½ years; take elective courses (such as legal theory, philosophy, and sometimes even theology); undergo apprenticeship; and writing and defending the thesis.
The title was first awarded in the Philippines by the Ateneo de Manila Law School, which first developed a model program that was later adopted by most schools now offering JD. After Ateneo, schools like the University of Batangas College of Law, St. University La Salle - Law School, and De La Salle Lipa Law School began offering JD, with schools like the Far Eastern University Institute of Law offering the University of Ramon V. Del Rosario at De La Salle University of Business for the first JD country - MBA programs. In 2008, the University of the Philippines College of Law began conferring J.D. in its graduates, the school chose to rename LL.B. program to J.D. because to accurately reflect the nature of university education provides as "the nomenclature does not accurately reflect the fact that LL.B. is a professional as well as a post baccalaureate degree." In 2009, Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM) and Silliman University Law School also transferred their LL.B Program to Juris Doctor - adopting the changes for new students entering for the 2009-2010 School Year. The newly established De La Salle University College of Law also offers J.D., although it will offer programs using trimestral calendars, unlike the model curriculum that uses the semestral calendar.
Singapore
The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.) is offered at Singapore Management University (SMU), and is treated as a qualification law degree for the purpose of admission to the legal profession in Singapore. Graduates of this program are "qualified persons" under Singapore law regulating admission to the legal profession, and are eligible to be admitted to the Singapore Bar.
However, like his Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) colleague, whether obtained from the National University of Singapore, the Singapore Management University or a recognized foreign university ("approved university"), JD SMU is not enough to enter the Singapore legal profession. Qualified people still have to meet other criteria to enter the Singapore Bar, the most important being the completion of Part B of the Singapore Bar Exam, and the completion of the Training Practice Contract.
United Kingdom
The Quality Assurance Agency consults in 2014 on the inclusion of "Juris Doctor" in the UK Framework for Higher Education Qualifications as an exception to the rule that "doctors" may only be used by doctorates. It is proposed that Juris Doctor will be awarded at the undergraduate level and will not grant the right to use the title "doctor". This is not included in the last framework published in November 2014.
The only JD degree currently granted by universities in the UK is at Queen's University Belfast. This is a 3-4 year degree set as a professional doctorate at the doctoral qualification level within the UK framework, is above the LLM and includes a 30,000 word dissertation that demonstrates "the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original or other advanced research. satisfying peer review, expanding the front line of discipline, and merit publications "to go through to earn a degree.
The LLB/JD joint course for a very limited number of students is offered by University College London, King's College London and the London School of Economics in collaboration with Columbia University in the US, in charge of the JD award. This is a four-year undergraduate program that leads to the award of British LLB and JD AS.
Both the University of Southampton and the University of Surrey offer a two-year LLB graduate described as a "JD Pathway" title, aimed specifically at Canadian students.
In the academic world
As a professional doctor, Juris Doctor is a degree that prepares the recipient to enter the legal profession (as does M.D. or D.O. in the medical profession and D.D.S in the dental profession). While J.D. is the only degree necessary to become a law professor or to obtain a license to practice law, it (such as M.D., D.O, or D.D.S.) is not a "research degree". The research degree in legal studies includes the Master of Laws (LL.M.), which usually requires a J.D. as a prerequisite, and Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D./J.S.D.), which usually requires LL.M. as a prerequisite. However, the American Bar Association has issued a Board Statement, advising the law school that J.D. should be considered equivalent to a Ph.D. for work education purposes. Thus, while most law professors are required to write and conduct original research in order to be granted proprietary rights, the majority have J.D. as their highest titles. Research in 2015 shows an increasing trend toward recruitment of professors with either J.D. and Ph.D. degrees, especially in highly ranked schools. Some international commentators have called the Board's Statement "selfish and selfish", suggesting that it is illogical to compare J.D. only with components taught from Ph.D. USA, ignoring research and dissertation components.
The US Department of Education and the National Science Foundation did not include J.D. or another professional doctorate degree among a degree equivalent to a research doctorate. Among law titles, they grant this status only to a Doctorate in Law Science. In Europe, the European Research Council follows a similar policy, stating that the first professional title carrying a "doctor" degree is not considered equivalent to a PhD. The Dutch and Portuguese Academy's National Introduction Information Center classifies the US JD (along with other first professional titles) equivalent to a master's degree, although the Irish National Qualifying Authority declares with respect to US practice that "The 'professional 1' degree is a first degree, not a bachelor's degree though combining the word 'doctor' in the title "and the Commonwealth countries also often consider the US JD equivalent to a bachelor's degree. The US Citizenship and Immigration Services have suggested that while J.D. may not be at the same level as a Ph.D., it is "equivalent to, if not higher than, a master's degree".
Use the title "Doctor"
Presumably because it does not completely replace L.L.B. for new graduates until 1971, it has not become a habit in the US to handle holders of J.D. as a "doctor". It was noted in 1920, when the title was extensively used by people with a doctorate (even those who, at the time, were undergraduate qualifications) and others, that J.D. stands out from other doctors in this regard. This continues to happen in general today.
In the late 1960s the growing number of American law schools awarding the J.D.s led to a debate about whether lawyers could ethically use the title "Doctor". The initial informal ethical opinion, based on the Canon Professional Ethics then applies, contradicts this. This is further reinforced by a full ethical opinion that maintains a ban on using a degree in legal practice as a form of self-esteem (except when dealing with countries where the use of "Doctors" by lawyers is a standard practice), but allows the use of a degree in academia "if the graduation school think about the JD title as a doctor's degree ". This opinion led to further debate. The introduction of the new Professional Responsibility Rule in 1969 seems to resolve the question - in countries where it is adopted - to allow for the use of titles. There is some dispute as to whether Doctoral PhD Law Doctorate should really be seen as a title, but ethical opinions state clearly that the new Code allows JD holders to be called "Doctors", while reaffirming that the older Canon does not.
Since not all state bars adopt the new Code, and some omitting clauses that permit the use of titles, it is confusion whether the lawyer can ethically use the title "Doctor" to proceed. While many state bars now permit the use of titles, some prohibit their use where it is possible to confuse the public about the qualifications of the real lawyer (eg if the public may be left with the impression that the lawyer is also a medical doctor). There has been discussion about whether it is allowed in some other limited instances. For example, in June 2006 the Board of Governors of Bar Florida decided that an attorney could refer to himself as a "doctor en leyes" in Spanish-language advertising, reversing his previous decision. The decision was revoked again in July 2006, when the council voted to allow only the title names to appear in the language used on the diploma, without translation.
The Wall Street Journal noted specifically on his stylebook that "Lawyers, despite their JD title, are not called doctors ", although this title is often used (if preferred) for holders of Ed.D, DDS, DO , MD, OD, and Ph.D. Many other newspapers have titles for doctors or do not use titles at all. In 2011, Mother Jones published an article stating that Michele Bachmann misrepresented his qualifications by using a "false" title based on Dr. JD. They then changed the article to note that the use of titles by lawyers "is (reluctantly) practices accepted in some states and not in other countries", although they maintain that it is rarely used because "it shows that you are a medical doctor or Ph. D.-- and therefore convey the wrong skill level ".
See also
- Bachelor of Civil Law (B.C.L., LL.B., or LL.L.)
- Law Degree (LL.B)
- Canon Legal Doctor (J.C.D.)
- Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D.)
- Doctor of Law (LL.D)
- Master of Laws (LL.M)
- Legal education
- Signed into legal practice
- JD Accelerated Program
- Undergraduate degree
- School law in the United States - explains the general characteristics of the JD curriculum in the US.
- Attorneys
Notes and references
External links
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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