Graduate school

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A graduate school (sometimes abbreviated as graduate school ) is a school that provides advanced academic degrees (ie, master's and doctoral degrees) with general requirements that students must have previously obtained. a bachelor's degree with a high grade average grade. Differences are usually made between graduate schools (where courses vary in the degree to which they provide training for a particular profession) and professional schools, offering specialized advanced degrees in professional fields such as medicine, nursing, business, engineering, speech Pathology-language, or law. The difference between graduate school and professional school is not absolute, as various professional schools offer undergraduate and verca degrees.

Many universities provide bachelor degrees; graduate school is not always a separate institution. While the term "graduate school" is typical in the United States and is often used elsewhere (eg Canada), "postgraduate education" is also used in English-speaking countries (Australia, Canada, Ireland, India, Bangladesh, New Zealand, Pakistan and UK) to refer to the educational spectrum beyond the bachelor's degree. Those who attend graduate school are called "graduate students" (in English and American English), or often in English English as "graduate students" and, colloquially, "postgraduate" and "postgrads". Degree awarded to postgraduate students including master's degree, doctoral degree, and other postgraduate qualifications such as postgraduate certificate and professional degree.

Produce original research is an important component of postgraduate studies in the humanities (eg, English literature, history, philosophy), science (eg, biology, chemistry, zoology) and social sciences (eg, sociology). This research usually leads to the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation. In professional-oriented postgraduate courses (eg, MPA, MBA, MHA), degrees may consist solely of courses, without original research or thesis components. The term "graduate school" especially North America. In addition, in North America, the term usually does not refer to medical school (whose students are called "medical students"), and only occasionally refers to law school or business school; these are often collectively called professional schools. Postgraduate students in the humanities, sciences and social sciences often receive funding from schools (eg, scholarships or scholarships) and/or other teaching assistant positions or jobs; in a professionally oriented graduate program, students tend to get funding, and the costs are usually much higher.

Although graduate school programs differ from undergraduate degree programs, graduate instruction (in the US, Australia and other countries) is often offered by some academic staff and senior departments who teach undergraduate programs. Unlike in the undergraduate program, however, it is less common for graduate students to take courses outside of their specialized field of study at the graduate or graduate level. In Ph.D. level, though, it is quite common to take courses from a wider range of studies, some fixed parts of the course, sometimes known as residency, are usually required to be taken from outside the department and college of the candidate level of search, to expand student research capabilities. Some agencies appoint separate graduates compared to undergraduate staff and show other divisions.

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Australia

Maps Graduate school

Brasil

The bachelor's degree in Brazil is called "graduate degree", and can be taken only after undergraduate education has been concluded ".

• Lato sensu postgraduate degree: a degree representing a specialization in a particular field, and takes 1 to 2 years to complete. It can sometimes be used to describe the degree of specialization between a master's degree and an MBA. In that sense, the main difference is that Lato Sensu programs tend to go deeper into the scientific aspects of the field of study, whereas the MBA programs tend to focus more on practical and professional aspects, which are more commonly used for Business, Management and Area administration. However, since there is no norm for this set, both names are used indiscriminately most of the time.
• Stricto sensu bachelor's degree: degree for those who want to pursue an academic career.
  • Masters: 2 years for completion. It usually serves as an additional qualification for those looking for a differential in the job market (and possibly later PhD), or for those who want to pursue a PhD. Most of the doctoral programs in Brazil require a master's degree (stricto sensu), which means that Lato Sensu Degree is usually not enough to start a doctoral program.
  • Doctor/PhD: 3-4 years for completion. Usually used as a springboard for academic life.

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Canada

In Canada, the School and Faculty of Graduate Studies are represented by the Canadian Graduate Studies Association (CAGS) or the Canadienne Association pour les ÃÆ' Â © tudes supÃÆ' Â © rieures (ACES). The Association brings together 58 Canadian universities with graduate programs, two national graduate student associations, and three federal research grant agencies and organizations with an interest in postgraduate study. Its mandate is to promote, advance, and promote excellence in postgraduate education and university research in Canada. In addition to the annual conference, the association prepares reports on issues related to postgraduate studies including supervision, funding, and professional development.

Reception

Admission to the master's program generally requires a bachelor's degree in a related field, with a fairly high grade typically ranging from B and higher (note that different schools have different letter level conventions, and these requirements may be significantly higher in some faculties), and recommendations from professors. Some schools require samples of student writing as well as research proposals. In English-speaking universities, applicants from countries where English is not a primary language are required to submit scores from the English Language Test as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).

Admission to a doctoral program usually requires a master's degree in a related field, a high enough value, a recommendation, a writing example, a research proposal, and an interview with a prospective supervisor. Requirements are often set higher than for the master program. In exceptional cases, a student holds an honors BA with a high enough value and a proven writing and research ability that is directly accepted into a Ph.D. program without the requirement to complete the first master. Many Canadian graduate programs allow students who embark on a master to "reclassify" to a Ph.D. program after a satisfactory performance in the first year, past the master's degree.

Students should normally state the purpose of their research or submit a research proposal upon entering the graduate school; in the case of a master's degree, there will be some flexibility (ie, a person is not retained for a person's research proposal, although major changes, eg from premodern to modern history, are discouraged). In the case of Ph.D.s, the research direction is usually known because it will usually follow the direction of the master's research.

A master's degree can be completed in one year but usually at least two; they usually should not be more than five years old. Doctoral degrees require a minimum of two years but often longer, although usually not more than six years.

Funding

Graduate students can take out student loans, but instead they often work as teaching assistants or research. Students often agree, as a condition of program acceptance, do not devote more than twelve hours per week to work or out of interest. Various universities in Canada have different policies in terms of how much funding is available. This funding may also be different at universities in each discipline. Many universities offer an Evening MBA program where students can work full-time while earning an MBA through night classes, allowing them to pay through the school.

For Master students, funding is generally available for first year students whose transcripts reflect very high scores; This funding can also be obtained in the second year of study. Funding for Ph.D. students come from a variety of sources, and many universities override tuition fees for doctoral candidates (This can also happen to master students from some universities). Funding is available in the form of scholarships, scholarships and other awards, both private and public.

Requirements for completion

Both a master's and a doctoral program can be conducted with a course or research or a combination of both, depending on the subject and the faculty. Most faculty need both, with an emphasis on research, and with courses directly related to the field of research.

The research candidate candidates are usually required to complete a thesis consisting of some original research and ranging from seven to two hundred pages. Some fields may require candidates to study at least one foreign language if they have not already earned sufficient foreign language credits. Some faculty require candidates to defend their thesis, but many do not. Those who do not often have a requirement take two additional courses, minimum, in lieu of preparing the thesis.

Ph.D. candidates who conduct research usually have to complete a thesis, or dissertation, consisting of original research that represents a significant contribution to their field, and ranging from two hundred to five hundred pages. Most Ph.D. candidates will be required to conduct a comprehensive examination - examination of general knowledge testing in their area of ​​specialization - in their second or third year as a prerequisite for continuing their studies, and must defend their thesis as the final requirement. Some faculty require candidates to earn sufficient credit in a third or fourth foreign language; for example, most candidates in modern Japanese topics should demonstrate proficiency in English, Japanese and Mandarin, while candidates in pre-modern Japanese topics should demonstrate proficiency in English, Japanese, Classical Chinese and Classical Japanese.

At Canadian-speaking English universities, both masters and Ph.D. the thesis may be presented in English or in the subject language (German for German literature, for example), but if this is the case, extensive abstracts should also be presented in English. In exceptional circumstances, the thesis can be presented in French.

French-speaking universities have a variety of different rules; some will accept students with little knowledge of French if they can communicate with their supervisors (usually in English).

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French

The ÃÆ' Â © coles doctorales ("Doctoral school") is a similar educational structure in focus for graduate schools, but is limited to PhD level. These schools have the responsibility of providing students with disciplined structural doctoral training. The school field is linked to the strength of the university: while some have two or three schools (usually "Arts and Humanities" and "Natural Science and Technology"), others have more special schools (History, Aeronautics, etc.).

Admission to a doctoral program requires a master's degree, both research-oriented and disciplined. High marks are needed (usually honor trends bien, equating a cum laude), but their acceptance is attributed to the decision of the School's Academic Council.

Most of the funds offered to junior researchers are channeled through Æ' cole doctorale, especially in the form of a three-year "Doctoral Scholarship" ( contrats doctoraux ). This scholarship is awarded upon submitting biographical information, bachelor and graduate transcripts where applicable, letters of recommendation, and research proposal, then oral exams by the Academic Committee.

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German

The traditional and most common way to get a doctorate in Germany is to do it individually under the supervision of a single professor (Doctorvater or Doktormutter ) without a formal curriculum. During their studies, doctoral students are enrolled at the university while working simultaneously either at the university itself, in research institutes or in companies as researchers.

With the founding of the Graduiertenkollegs funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), the German Research Foundation, in the early 1990s, the concept of graduate school was introduced to the higher German Education system. Unlike the American graduate school model, only doctoral students participate in Graduiertenkolleg . Unlike the traditional German doctoral study model, a Graduiertenkolleg aims to provide young researchers with structured doctoral training under the supervision of the professor's team in an excellent research environment. A Graduiertenkolleg typically consists of 20-30 doctoral students, about half of which are supported by benefits from DFG or other sponsors. Research programs are typically defined narrowly around a particular topic and have interdisciplinary aspects. This program is set for a certain period of time (up to nine years if funded by DFG). The official English translation of the term Graduiertenkolleg is Research Training Group .

In 2006, a different type of graduate school, termed Graduiertenschule ("graduate school"), was established by DFG as part of the German University Excellence Initiative. They are thematically much broader than the focus of Graduiertenkollegs and often consist of 100-200 doctoral students.

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United Kingdom

The term "graduate school" is used more widely by North American universities than by those in the UK. However, many UK universities have officially launched graduate schools, including University of Birmingham, Durham University, Keele University, Nottingham University, Bournemouth University, Queen Belfast University and the University of London, which includes graduate schools at King's College London. , Royal Holloway and University College London. They often coordinate supervision and training of candidates for doctorate.

src: gradschool.wsu.edu

United States

Reception

Although most postgraduate programs have the same list of common acceptance requirements, the interests placed on each type of requirements can vary greatly between graduate schools, in-school departments, and even departmental programs. The best way to determine how a graduate program will consider the admissions materials is to ask the person responsible for graduate acceptance on the particular program being applied. Admission to graduate school requires a bachelor's degree. A high score in a person's field of study is important - the value outside the field is less so. The standardization test of Postgraduate Exam is required by almost all graduate schools, while other additional standardized tests (such as Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) and Graduate Examination Test (GRE) Test Subject) scores may be required by some institutions or programs. In addition, a good letters of recommendation from undergraduate instructors are often important, because strong letters of recommendation from mentors or supervisors of undergraduate research experience provide evidence that applicants can conduct research and can handle the rigors of graduate school education.

In science and some social sciences, previous research experiences may be important. In contrast, in most humanities disciplines, examples of academic writing are usually sufficient. Many universities require a personal statement (sometimes called a Statement of Intent or Letter of Intent), which may include an indication of the intended field (s) of the study; how detailed this statement is or whether it is possible to change a person's research focus depends heavily on the discipline and department applied by the student.

In some disciplines or universities, graduate applicants may best have at least one recommendation from their off-campus research work where they obtained their bachelor's degree; However, like previous research experiences, this may not be very important in the humanities discipline.

Some schools set a minimum GPA and exam scores below which they will not accept any applicant; this reduces the time spent on app review. On the other hand, many other agencies often explicitly state that they are not using some sort of cut-off in terms of GPA or GRE scores. Instead, they claim to consider many factors, including past research achievements, appropriateness between research interests of applicants and those of faculty, statement of purpose and reference letters, as stated above. Some programs also require professors to act as sponsors. Finally, applicants from non-English speaking countries must often attend the English Language Test as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).

In most institutions, the decision on acceptance is not made by the institution itself but the department where the student enrolls. Some departments may require interviews before making a decision to accept the applicant. Most universities comply with the Graduate School Council Resolution Regarding Graduate, Fellows, Trainee and Assistant Graduates, which provide applicants until April 15 to accept or reject offers containing financial support.

Non-degree search

In addition to traditional "searching" applications for acceptance, many schools allow students to apply for "non-degree of searching". Entry into the Non Degree category is usually restricted especially for those who can benefit professionally from additional studies at the graduate level. For example, the current primary, secondary and secondary teachers of education want to get the most common re-certification credits applicable as students seeking a degree.

Requirements for completion

Graduate students often state the desired degree (master or doctorate) in their application. In some cases, the master's program allows successful students to proceed to a doctorate. In addition, doctoral students who have advanced to candidacy but do not submit a dissertation ("ABD," to "all but the dissertation") often receive an additional master and master's degree called Master of Philosophy (MPhil), or Candidate of Philosophy (C. ) Level. The master's component of the doctoral program often takes a year or two.

Many postgraduate programs require students to pass one or several exams to demonstrate their competence as scholars. In some departments, comprehensive exams are often required in the first year of doctoral studies, and are designed to test the background of undergraduate student knowledge. This type of examination is more common in science and some social sciences but is relatively unknown in most humanities disciplines.

Most graduate students perform teaching assignments, often serving as class students and tutors. In some departments, they can be promoted to lecturer status, positions that have greater responsibility.

Doctoral students typically spend about the first two to three years they take college and begin research in their second year if not earlier. Many masters and all specialist students will conduct research that culminates in the paper, presentation, and defense of their research. This is called a master's thesis (or, for a student of an Educational Specialist, a specialist paper). However, many US master degree programs do not require a master's thesis, focusing primarily on work only or on "practice" or "workshop." Some students complete the last project that culminates or "the capstone" rather than the thesis. Such "real-world" experiences may specifically require a candidate to work on a project only or in a team as a consultant, or consultant, to an external entity approved or elected by an academic institution and under the supervision of the faculty.

In the second and third years of study, doctoral programs often require students to pass the exam again. Programs often require Qualification ("Quals"), PhD ("Candidate") or General Exam ("General"), which are designed to ensure students have a broad understanding of their discipline, and/or one or more Field Exams Special ("Special"), which tests students in a narrower field of specialization in the discipline. If these checks are done orally, they can be known as "orals". For some social sciences and many humanities disciplines, where graduate students may or may not study discipline at the undergraduate level, this exam will be the first and based either on a graduate course or a specific preparatory reading (sometimes up to one year of work being read).

In all cases, comprehensive exams are usually stressful and time-consuming and must be passed to be allowed to proceed to the dissertation. Passing the exam allows students to stay, start doctoral research, and move up to doctoral candidate status, while failing usually leads students to leave the program or retrieve the exam after some time has passed (usually one semester or one semester). year). Some schools have a medium category, graduated at master's level, which allows students to go with a master without completing a master's dissertation.

Over the next few years doctoral candidates primarily do his research. Usually this lasts for three to eight years, although some finish faster, and some much longer. In total, a typical doctoral degree takes between four and eight years from entering the program to completion, although this time varies depending on department, dissertation topics, and many other factors. For example, an average degree of astronomy takes five to six years, but the degree of observational astronomy takes six to seven years due to limited weather factors, while theoretical astronomical degrees require five.

Although there is substantial variation between universities, departments, and individuals, the humanities and social sciences physician takes on average longer to complete than a doctorate in natural sciences. These differences are due to the different nature of research between the humanities and some social and natural sciences and the different expectations of the disciplines in the course, language, and length of the dissertation. However, the time required to complete a doctoral degree also varies according to the candidate's ability and research options. Some students may also choose to remain in the program if they fail to win academic positions, especially in disciplines with a tight labor market; by remaining students, they can maintain access to university libraries and facilities, while also retaining academic affiliation, which can be important for conferences and job search.

Traditionally, doctoral programs are only meant to last three to four years and, in some disciplines (especially natural sciences), with helpful advisors and light teaching loads, it is possible for the level to be completed in that amount of time. However, a growing number of disciplines, including most humanities, set their requirements for the expected lectures, languages, and research levels of the dissertation on the assumption that students will take an average of five years or six to seven years on average; competition for jobs in this field also raises expectations on the length and quality of the dissertation.

Competition for work in certain fields, such as life sciences, is so great that almost all students now enter the second training period after graduating from a school called postdoctoral fraternity. In total, most life scientists will invest 12-14 years in low-cost training positions and only 14% will get land tenure work (Miller McCune, the real science gap). The average age at which life scientists get their first R01 grant to conduct independent research now is 42.

In some disciplines, doctoral programs can average seven to ten years. Archeology, which requires long-term research, tends to be longer than this spectrum. Increasing the length of the degree is a matter of great concern for students and universities, although there is much disagreement about potential solutions to this problem.

Funding

In general, there is less funds available for students admitted to a master's degree than for students enrolled in a Ph.D. or other doctoral degrees. Many departments, especially where students have research or teaching responsibilities, offer Ph.D. students paying school fees and allowance that pays most of the expenses. At some elite universities, there may be a minimum wage set for all Ph.D. students, and tuition waivers. The provisions of these benefits vary widely, and may consist of scholarships or fellowships, followed by teaching responsibilities. In many elite universities, these benefits have increased, in response to student pressure and especially to competition among elite universities for graduate students.

In some fields, research positions are more coveted than teaching positions because student researchers are usually paid to work on their required dissertation, while teaching is generally considered a diversion from one's work. The position of the research is more typical of the disciplines; they are relatively rare in the humanities disciplines, and where they exist, rarely allow students to work on their own research. PhD science students may apply for individual NRSA scholarships from NIH or scholarships from private foundations. US universities often also offer competitive support from NIH-funded training programs. One example is the Biotechnology Training Program - University of Virginia. Departments often have funds for limited discretionary funds to add small expenditures such as research travel and travel to conferences.

Some students can obtain funding through a dissertation grant funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), or through a similar program at another institution. Many students are also funded as laboratory researchers by faculty who have been funded by private foundations or by the NSF, the National Institutes of Health (NIH), or other "federal mission agencies" such as the Department of Defense or the Environmental Protection Agency. The natural sciences are usually well-funded, so most students can reach outside or institutional funding, but in the humanities, not everyone does it. Some humanity students borrow money during their course, then take full-time jobs while completing their dissertation. Students in social sciences are less funded than students in the natural and physical sciences, but often have more funding opportunities than students in the humanities, especially since the funding of science is beginning to see the value of social science research.

Funding is very different from departments and universities; some universities provide five years of full funding for all Ph.D. students, although often with the teaching requirements installed; other universities do not. However, due to the teaching requirements, which can be in the years of Ph.D. research, even the best funded universities often have no funds for humanities or social science students who need to do research elsewhere, both in the United States. or overseas. Such students can seek funding through outside funders such as private foundations, such as the German Marshall Fund or the Social Science Research Council (SSRC).

Foreign students are usually funded in the same way as domestic students (USA), although student and subsidized student loans and federal appeals help are generally limited to citizens and US citizens, permanent residents, and approved refugees. In addition, some funding sources (such as many NSF scholarships) can only be provided to domestic students. International students often experience unique financial difficulties such as high costs to visit their families at home, family support not allowed to work due to immigration laws, expensive tuition by world standards, and large fees: visa fees by US Citizenship and Immigration Services , and supervisory fees under the Student and Exchange Visitor Program from the United States Department of Homeland Security.

Employee union graduates

In many universities, postgraduate students are employed by their university to teach classes or conduct research. While all postgraduate employees are graduate students, many graduate students are not employees. MBA students, for example, usually pay tuition and do not pay for teaching or research work. In many countries, graduate employees have collectively organized unions to bargain contracts with their universities. In Canada, for example, almost all graduate employees are members of the local CUPE.

In the United States there are many graduate unions at state universities. The Graduate Union Employers Coalition enrolls 25 recognized unions at the state university on its website. Private colleges, however, are covered by the National Labor Relations Act rather than the state labor law and until 2001 there was no union recognized at private universities.

Many graduate students see themselves as junior faculty, but with much lower salaries. Many graduate students feel that teaching takes better time spent on research, and many point out that there is a vicious circle in the academic workforce economy. Institutions that rely on cheap graduate student work do not need to create expensive professors, so graduate students who have taught extensively in graduate schools can find it very difficult to get a teaching job when they have earned their degree. Many institutions rely heavily on the teaching of graduate students: a 2003 report by agitators for graduate unions at Yale, for example, claimed that "70% of the teaching contact hours at Yale are conducted by transient teachers: graduate teachers, additional instructors, and other teachers not in the mastery path. "The State of Michigan leads in terms of progressive policies on graduate student union with five universities that recognize graduate unions: Central Michigan University, Michigan State University, University of Michigan, Wayne State University and Western Michigan University.

The United Auto Workers (under the slogan "Uniting Academic Workers") and the American Federation of Teachers are two international unions representing graduate employees. Private university administrations often oppose their graduate students when they try to form unions, arguing that students must be exempted from labor laws intended for "employees". In some cases the union movement has met with enough student opposition to fail. In schools where postgraduates are unionized, positions of association vary. Sometimes only one set of employees will be unionized (eg teaching assistant, housing director); at other times, most or all will. Typically, scholarship recipients, usually not employed by their university, do not participate.

When negotiations fail, graduate unions sometimes break down. Although graduate student unions can use the same strike type as other unions do, they also use teaching, work-in, parades, parades, and class strikes. In class strikes, graduate students refuse to assess exams and papers and, if the strike lasts until the end of the academic period, also refuse to submit the final grade. Another form of work act is known as "work-to-rule", in which the graduate student's instructor works exactly like clocks because they are paid and nothing more.

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See also

• Doctor
• Doctor of Philosophy
• EURODOC (Doctoral Board of Candidates and European junior researchers)
• History of higher education in the United States # Graduate School
• List of doctoral fields
• List of post-graduate institutions
• Pile Higher and Deeper (a widely read graduate school comic strip)
• Professional associations
• Professional certification

src: www.uh.edu

Note

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References

• William G. Bowen & amp; Neil L. Rudenstine, In Pursuit of the PhD (Princeton UP, 1992; ISBNÃ, 0-691-04294-2). A comprehensive report on graduate education in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s, based on a survey of tens of thousands of graduate students.

src: apsia.org

Further reading

• Huang, Ying. "The Transition Challenges Faced by Chinese Graduate Students." Adult Learning . August 2012. Volume 23, Issue 3. p.Ã, 138-147. Available in SAGE Journals. doi: 10.1177/1045159512452861.

src: www.sciencemag.org

External links

• PhD Growth - Discusses innovation in doctoral training.
• How Do I Get Into a Ph.D. Psychology Stanford. Program - One student experience when enrolling to a graduate program in psychology. Includes explanations and helpful tips for all stages of the application process.
• Guide to applying to a PhD - Including proper selection of CS programs, taking tests, recommendations, and aims statement from a professor who has been on the admissions committee for Carnegie Mellon, MIT, Berkeley.
• Free Advice When Applying to Graduate School (PDF) - Written by a professor of psychology at Portland State University.

Source of the article : Wikipedia